“The attempt of this paper is to re-read the History of Murshidabad during the Pala-Sena era with the help of contemporary sculptures of that time. These sculptures throw light on the society of that time at large and in turn, the politics, economy and culture of that period as well.
On our trip to Murshidabad, we paid a visit to the
In this paper, I have first briefly dealt with the chronology of Pala Dynasty rulers and the Sena Dynasty rulers, the political scenario and then gradually moved towards the economy, the social conditions and the cultural scene. After a brief discussion on Pala-Sena art in general, I have moved to the exhibits of the
From information gathered at the museum, and from my own insights, enquiries and a little bit of research work, this paper has been formed on the kind of art that was prevalent in
The Pal rulers:
- Gopala I (750- 770 AD)
- Dharmapala (770- 810 AD)
- Devapala (810- 850 AD)
- Vigrahapala I (850- 875 AD)
- Narayanapala (875- 908 AD)
- Rajyapala (908-935 AD)
- Gopala II (935- 952 AD)
- Vigrahapala II (952- 988 AD)
- Mahipala I (988- 1038 AD)
- Nayapala (1038- 1055 AD)
- Vigrahapala III (1055- 1070 AD)
- Mahipala II (1070- 1075 AD)
- Shurapala (1075- 1077 AD)
- Ramapala (1077- 1120 AD)
- Kumarapala (1120- 1125 AD)
- Gopala III (1125- 1144 AD)
- Madanapala (1144- 1161 AD)
The Pala Empire was a dynasty in control of the northern and eastern Indian subcontinent, mainly the Bengal and Bihar regions, from the 8th to the 12th century. The name Pala means "protector" and was used as an ending to the names of all Pala monarchs. The founder of the empire was Gopala. He was the first independent Buddhist king of Bengal and came to power in 750 in Gaur by democratic election, which was unique at the time. He reigned from 750-770 and consolidated his position by extending his control over all of
Origin of the Palas
The origin of the Palas is not clearly stated in any of the numerous Pala records. It is also very curious to note that whereas the identity of the Kamboja Pala rulers of
 After Harsha Vardhana, Buddhism faced the possibility of extinction. Buddhists were persecuted all over
 Pala rule was Monarchial or Monarch was the centre of all power. Pala kings would adopt titles like Parameshwar, Paramvattaraka, Maharajadhiraja. Pala kings appointed Prime Ministers. The Line of Garga served as the Prime Ministers of the Palas for 10 years. More laudable were the achievements of the Palas in the field of administration. The Pala copperplates bear ample testimony to their well-organised system of administration. An organised system of administration prevailed from the village level to the central government level. They inherited an administrative structure from the Guptas and it was to their credit that they made the structure more efficient and added many new characteristics. They built up an efficient structure for revenue collection. The long list of state-officials, found in the Pala copperplates, clearly indicate that the administration was taking care of every aspect of public life - from the ferry ghats to the riverways, land routes, trade and commerce, towns and ports, and law and order in the country. Even forest or market management was not left out. The basis of their long rule was the efficient administrative system.
 The proto-Bangla language was born during the reign of the Palas. The Buddhist texts of the Charyapada were the earliest form of Bangla language. This Proto-Bangla language was used as the official language in
- Hemanta Sen (1070 AD)
- Vijay Sen (1096-1159 AD)
- Ballal Sen (1159 - 1179 AD)
- Lakshman Sen (1179 - 1206 AD)
- Vishvarup Sen (1206 - 1225 AD)
- Keshab Sen (1225-1230 AD)
 The Sen Dynasty ruled Bengal through the 11th and 12th centuries. They were called Brahma-Kshatriyas and Karnata-Kshatriyas. The dynasty's founder was Hemanta Sen, who was part of the Pala Dynasty until their empire began to weaken. He usurped power and styled himself king in 1095 AD. His successor Vijay Sen (ruled from 1096 AD to 1159 AD) helped lay the foundations of the dynasty, and had an unusually long reign of over 60 years. Ballal Sena conquered Gour from the Pala and expanded his empire. Lakshman Sen succeeded Ballal Sen in 1179 and ruled
The most brilliant side of the Pala Empire was the excellence of its art and sculptures. Palas created a distinctive form of Buddhist art known as the "Pala
Sculptures during this period were made primarily in stone and metal. However, lesser examples also exist in precious metals and terracotta. Pala stone sculptures are usually rendered in greyish or black stone, the former believed to be from
As time elapsed, there took place an evolution, where images carved in stone tended to become more ornate and detailed than before. The central figure in later stelae is often carved in greater three-dimensional depth than the rest of the sculpture, almost dissociating itself from the rest. This is a shifting away from the uniform depth of carving in the early stages. A greater accentuation of postures, crispness in the defining of features and more exaggerated proportions are stylistic features of later Pala-Sena sculptural activity.
1. Sthanaka Vishnu – Sandstone, 9th Century, Murshidabad. ( Dravidian)
2. Buddha (Votive Stupa): Sandstone, 10th Century, Murshidabad.
3. Buddha (Bhumisparsa Mudra): Sandstone, 10th Century, Kiriteswari.
4. Garudasina Vishnu - Black Stone, 10th-11th Centuries, Murshidabad.
5. Surya – Black Stone, 10th-11th Centuries, Murshidabad.
6. Surya – Red Sandstone, 10th-11th Centuries, Murshidabad.
7. Parsvanath - Black Stone, 10th-11th Centuries, Murshidabad.
8. Tara - Black Stone, 10th-11th Centuries, Murshidabad.
9. Gouri - Black Stone, 10th-11th Centuries, Murshidabad.
10. Mahisamardini - Black Stone, 10th-11th Centuries, Murshidabad.
11. Parvati - Black Stone, 10th-11th Centuries, Murshidabad.
12. Sadyojata - Black Stone, 11th Century, Murshidabad.
13. Narasimha - Black Stone, 11th Century, Murshidabad.
14. Brahma - Black Stone, 11th Century, Murshidabad.
15. Hariti- Black Stone, 11th Century, Murshidabad.
16. Sthanaka Vishnu - Black Stone, 11th- 12th Centuries, Murshidabad.( Bengali)
17. Sthanaka Vishnu - Black Stone, 11th- 12th Centuries, Murshidabad.(Vaishnav)
18. Sthanaka Vishnu - Black Stone, 11th- 12th Centuries, Murshidabad.(Orissan)
19. Ganesa - Black Stone, 11th- 12th Centuries, Murshidabad.
20. Karttikeya - Black Stone, 11th- 12th Centuries, Murshidabad.(South-east)
21. Uma Mahesvra- White Sandstone, 11th- 12th Centuries, Murshidabad.
22. Dancing Apsara- Sanstone, 11th- 12th Centuries, Murshidabad.(Orissan)
23. Uma Mahesvra - Black Stone, 11th- 12th Centuries, Murshidabad.
24. Vaisnavi/Narayani - Black Stone,11th-12th Centuries, Murshidabad.(on Garur)
25. Dancing Ganesa (astabahu) - Black Stone, 11th- 12th Centuries, Murshidabad.
26. Sthanaka Vishnu - Black Stone, 12th -13th Centuries, Murshidabad.
27. Ganesa – Red Sandstone, 12th -13th Centuries, Murshidabad.
Characteristics of Vishnu Sculptures:
Of all the male Hindu deities Vishnu was most popular in
Description of Jiaganj Sculptures: In total, 5 important Vishnu sculptures in various styles are found here. A description of each is essential for my study to be fruitful. Garudasina Vishnu [No.4]: This figure of Vishnu mounting Garuda, the mythical bird, dates back to the 11th century A.D. The image is highly ornamented, with necklaces, waistbands, earrings, anklets etc. the most striking feature seems to be the fact that the ornamentation style looks to be Orissan. This highlights the fact that either this sculpture was made in Orissa or Orissan sculptors sculpted it. Narasimha [No.13]: This form of Lord Vishnu, the Narsimha, is in half human and half lion form. It also seems to be of 11th century AD. Sthanaka Vishnu: There are 4 sculptures of this type or in the Sthanaka or standing pose. The Lord is standing on a high lotus pedestal. The 11th-12th Century image clearly again shows an Orissan influence while there is another 12th-13th Century image which shows maturity of the art of sculpting, with the 3D effect coming to play a part. There a protruding arch is made which gives a very distinctive look to the image. But the most striking sculpture is one of Sthanaka Vishnu made in the Dravidian Style. It is a 9th Century sculpture, with stubby nose and a solid body mass with a very distinct Jokhha iconography. Special mention should also be made of the Vishnu made in the Vaisnav style. This image is absolutely mutilated but it can still be identified due to its headgear.
Evaluation: the findings clearly show that this was a worthwhile center. Infact the various forms of Vishnu that have come to our knowledge also points towards a major point. The center was so important that artisans from other regions came to this center or they came as gifts from other regions. Either way, it only helps in establishing the fact that the Murshidabad center was a center to be taken note of.
Characteristics of Surya Sculptures:
 The third important male deity from
Jiaganj Sculptures: Here we find two significant sculptures of Surya. First of those is a black Sandstone one, dated around 10th-11th Centuries, and it shows Surya wearing Uttario, boots and carrying a sword. The second sculpture of Red Sandstone and dated around 11th-12th centuries has more pronounced features of Full blown lotuses attached to the stela, images of Usa, Pratyusa, Pingala, Dandin and Rahu including the seven horses with the chariot.
Evaluation: The images found make it very evident that Murshidabad had artists who regularly practiced their art and went on evolving it. The time-line of the two sculptures show that a major development was called for, if the centre was a well functioning one. And the two Surya Sculptures are testimony to the fact that the art here was developing as it did for the rest of
Important note: An interesting observation which we made at the Museum was centered on a particular Vishnu sculpture (not in list). This sculpture has been somehow preserved by the museum. Its face is broken in places, almost beyond recognition. The conclusion that it is indeed a Vishnu sculpture could be arrived at once the Shankha and the Lotus, two important identification marks for a Vishnu sculpture, were recognized. However, another slight problem remained. This Vishnu has a posture which bears striking resemblance with Surya. Like the Vaishnav style Sthanaka Vishnu is completely mutilated, but it is said to be Vishnu’s image due to its iconography, but at the same time it can also be mistook for being a Surya image as well, as often the headgear of the two deities looks similar. However, this confusion was attempted to be cleared when we learnt that there is after all, similar features between the two. We found our answer in a book at the Museum library. It states that according to one Sapmani, Vishnu is not a supreme God but represents Fire, Lightning and Solar light on Earth (resemblance to Surya). Though the sculpture on display bears the name ‘Vishnu’, one cannot rule out the possibility of it being another one of those Surya specimens. In fact, this sculpture reminded me of the Surya murti of Konark
Characteristics of Shiva Sculptures:
  The second most important male deity from
Jiaganj Sculptures: Here we find only two images of Shiva, and that too not his solo one. We find Uma-Mahesvra images. One is made of white sandstone, and seems to be of 11th-12th Century and the other is made of Black Sandstone. This image shows the Trident of Shiva in a strangely Buddhist iconographical way. The Trident looks more like the Buddhist Baira.
Characteristics of Gouri and Durga Scupltures:
 Besides various forms of Durga, Gauri or Parvati a few female deities are quite typical of Bengal.Gauri with child (Sadyojata) Shiva There is a special group of sculptures where a reclining, bejewelled female figure is shown on a cot, her head placed on the left hand and a lily (utpala) held in the right hand, while a child is shown lying close to her. A female attendant shampooes her left foot and two others attend upon her. A Shiva-lingam, Ganesha, Karttikeya and the nine planetary deities are shown on top and various objects for a ritual are shown. For some time it was difficult to identify the image and the scene. Bhattasali identified the female figure as Gauri and the child as Shiva, following the marriage story of Shiva with Parvati. There are several images of Durga with four or more arms, seated or standing, with a lion mount. But as mentioned earlier the Durga Mahisasura-mardini was the most popular goddess from
Jiaganj Sculptures: The Sadyojata image found here clearly points towards the myth of Neelkantha Shiva and not the Gouri with child one. There are images of Gouri and Parvati also found here from the 11th-12th Century period. The Mahisamardini image found here is an early one where Durga is still shown to be an unmarried woman, and images of Karttikeya,Ganesa and others are not included.
Evaluation: The Sadyojata image and the Mahisamardini image clearly points to the fact that the center is firstly and old one as images of earlier time are found here and then progressive developments in images are also brought about. Again, the Neelkantha Shiva Sadyojata, is a unique image and it also points to the high level of cultural development of the region.
Other Important Male Deities:
 Brahma, who was a minor deity in the rest of the Indian subcontinent, enjoyed popularity in
Jiaganj Sculptures: Two images of Ganesa are found here. One is older, of around 11th Century of Black Sandstone and the other is of around 13th Century made of Red sandstone. A beautiful Astabahu Dancing Ganesa image is also found where the stela has relief of mangoes. This may validate the fact that this was sculpted in Murshidabad only as the region was famous for its mangoes. Brahma’s images are very rare and difficult to come by generally. But the collection here boasts of one. The image has long ears, and the relief of lions looks like the Persian lions. There is an image of Karttikeya found, which is clearly sculpted in the South-eastern Style.
Evaluation: Again, the Ganesa images re-validate the fact that the centre is a mature one, and the relief of mangoes further proves that the images are sculpted here in Murshidabad only. The Brahma image brings the question of outside influence with its relief of Persian lions, so does the Karttikeya image with its South-Eastern relief features.
Characteristics of Buddha Sculptures:
 The Master never visited
Jiaganj Sculptures: Two images of the Buddha are found here. One of them is the Votive Stupa image and the other is the famous Bhumisparsa image. The image is perfection personified and an aura of meditation and abundant love is the constant atmosphere around the Lord.
Buddhist Female Deities:   Of the Buddhist female deities the most prominent is
Jiaganj Sculptures: Images of Tara and Hariti are found here. The Image of Hariti is unfinished and bears a child in its arms. The image of
Jaina images:   Jainism, as is well-known to all, was prevalent in
Jiaganj Sculptures: An image of Parsvanath of around 10th-11th Century is found here.
Evaluation: Images of Buddhist and Jain Gods and Goddesses show that sculpturing was though dominated by Hindu Deities, but the other did not completely loose out. They also exhibited importance and must have been worshipped as well. Especially Buddhism in
Important note: 11th Century ‘talpata’ manuscripts have also been found, which are written in medieval Bengali script and are of two types, Kharatar and Sritar.
Influences in their art: Palas came in contact with distant lands through their conquests and trades. The Sailendra Empire of Java, Sumatra and Malaya was a colony of the Palas. Devapala granted five villages at the request of the Sailendra king Balputradeva of Java for the upkeepment of the matha established at Nalanda for the scholars of that country. Thus the South-eastern influences found in their sculpture are accounted for. This also means that Murshidabad also was in some way attached to the colonies. The Prime minister of the Balputradeva was from Gauda. Dharmapala who extended his empire to the boundary of the Abbasid Empire had diplomatic relations with the caliph Harun Al-Rashid. Coins of Harun-al-Rashid have been found in Mahasthangarh.  Palas maintained diplomatic and religious relation with
The influence of different styles of art, styles belonging to places outside
Since place of origin, according to Dr. Sanjoy Kumar Mallik (Department of History of Art, Visva Bharati, Santiniketan) and find spot may not necessarily coincide, the defining of specific schools of culture is a difficult proposition in
It is actually difficult to pinpoint the beginnings of the art of sculpting in
When in the middle of the 8th century the foundation of the Pala kingdom was laid, the situation began to improve. The kings were ardent devotees of the religion of Tathagata, and its Mahayana version received liberal patronage from them. While Dharmapala founded several monasteries and temples in
The art developed over a period of four hundred years and more in eastern
About Sompura Mahavihara, Mr.J.C. French says with grief: "For the research of the Pyramids of Egypt we spend millions of dollars every year. But had we spent only one percent of that money for the excavation of Sompura Mahavihara, who knows what extraordinary discoveries could have been made."---"The Art of the Pala Empire or
UG III, History Deptt.
 The History and Culture of the Pālas of
 The Palas were at first known as Sudras. “With the rise of their power they began to claim a Kshatria lineage" (Indian Culture, 1934, p 113, Indian Research Institute – India).
 Gaudalekhamala, pp 127-146, A. K. Maitreya.
 R.C. Majumdar, The History of
 Susan L
 NK Bhattasali, Iconography of Buddhist and Brahmanical Sculptures in the
 Mr.J.C. French, The Art of the Pala Empire or
 Article by, Dr.Sanjoy Mullick, Deptt of History of Art, Kala Bhavana, Vishwa Bharati, Shantiniketan