Zelman v. Simmons-Harris, 536 U.S. 639, 686 (2002) (Stevens, J., dissenting).
 I explore these questions in Thomas Jefferson and the Wall of Separation Between Church and State (New York: New York University Press, 2002).
 Letter from Jefferson to Messrs. Nehemiah Dodge, Ephraim Robbins, and Stephen S. Nelson, a committee of the Danbury Baptist association in the state of Connecticut, 1 January 1802, The Papers of Thomas Jefferson (Manuscript Division, Library of Congress), Series 1, Box 89, December 2, 1801-January 1, 1802.
 James Hutson, "‘A Wall of Separation': FBI Helps Restore Jefferson's Obliterated Draft," Library of Congress Information Bulletin, Vol. 57, No. 6 (June 1998), pp. 137, 163.
 For a detailed analysis of these letters, see my Thomas Jefferson and the Wall of Separation Between Church and State.
 Reynolds v. United States, 98 U.S. 145, 164 (1879).
 Everson, 330 U.S. 1, 16, 18 (1947).
 Brief of the American Civil Liberties Union as Amicus Curiae at 8, 12, 34.
 In McCollum v. Board of Education, Justice Hugo L. Black revealed the extent to which the Court had constitutionalized the "wall" metaphor: "The majority in the Everson case, and the minority...agreed that the First Amendment's language, properly interpreted, had erected a wall of separation between Church and State." McCollum, 333 U.S. 203, 211 (1948).
 These themes are explored in John T. McGreevy, "Thinking on One's Own: Catholicism in the American Intellectual Imagination, 1928-1960," Journal of American History, Vol. 84 (June 1997), pp. 97-131, and Philip Hamburger, Separation of Church and State (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2002). The chief architect of the modern "wall" was Justice Hugo Black, whose affinity for church-state separation and the metaphor was rooted in virulent anti-Catholicism. Philip Hamburger has argued that Justice Black, a former Alabama Ku Klux Klansman, was the product of a remarkable "confluence of Protestant [specifically Baptist], nativist, and progressive anti-Catholic forces.... Black's association with the Klan has been much discussed in connection with his liberal views on race, but, in fact, his membership suggests more about [his] ideals of Americanism," especially his support for separation of church and state. "Black had long before sworn, under the light of flaming crosses, to preserve ‘the sacred constitutional rights' of ‘free public schools' and ‘separation of church and state.'" Although he later distanced himself from the Klan, "Black's distaste for Catholicism did not diminish." Hamburger, Separation of Church and State, pp. 423, 434, 462, 463.
 Tiller v. Atlantic Coast Line Railroad Co., 318 U.S. 54, 68 (1943) (Frankfurter, J., concurring).
 Berkey v. Third Ave. Ry. Co., 244 N.Y. 84, 94, 155 N.E. 58, 61 (1926).
 McCollum, 333 U.S. at 247 (Reed, J., dissenting).
 Engel v. Vitale, 370 U.S. 421, 445-446 (1962) (Stewart, J., dissenting).
 Wallace v. Jaffree, 472 U.S. 38, 107 (1985) (Rehnquist, J., dissenting).