Sileshi et al. 069 Table 1. Basic data on the extent of land degradation, deforestation and threat to biodiversity in the project countries and the world. Land degradation # Malawi Mozamb Tanzania Zambia Zimbabwe World References % land degraded 61 NA 88 82 91 70 ISRIC/UNEP 1990 Light degradation 3 NA 31 21 53 NA ISRIC/UNEP 1990 Moderate degradation 58 NA 31 44 39 NA ISRIC/UNEP 1990 Severe degradation 0 NA 25 17 0 NA ISRIC/UNEP 1990 Deforestation Change in forest area % annual change -2.4 -0.2 -0.2 -2.4 -1.5 -0.22 FAO, 2000 % change in 1990-2000 Total forest -22 -2 -2 -21 -14 -2% WRI, 2003 Natural forest -23 -2 NA -21 -15 -4% WRI, 2003 Plantation forest 2 2 NA 3 2 3% WRI, 2003 Threat to biodiversity Threatened forest trees* 6 10 191 11 4 3443 FAO, 2000 Higher plants* 14 46 239 8 17 NA IUCN, 2005 Mammals* 7 12 34 11 8 NA IUCN, 2005 Birds* 13 23 37 12 10 NA IUCN, 2005 Reptiles* 0 5 5 0 0 NA IUCN, 2005 Amphibians* 5 3 40 1 6 NA IUCN, 2005 Fish* 0 21 28 0 0 NA IUCN, 2005 CO2 emission 5 6 6 6 7 10 Total (mt), 1998 7.5 x 10 1.3 x 10 2.2 x 10 1.6 x 10 1.4 x 10 2.4 x 10 CDIAC, 2001 % change since 1990 25 34 -2 NA NA 8 CDIAC, 2001 Per capita, 1998 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 1.2 4.1 CDIAC, 2001 NA = data not available; #Percentage of the total land area in 2003; *Number of threatened species by 2004 Land degradation threatens not only the future of Figures could be much higher as the full extent of thesmallholder agriculture in the miombo but also, economic regions species diversity is unknown, and the consequ-growth prospects of nations. Some 61 - 91% of the land ences of biodiversity loss are tremendous. Recently thein the miombo eco-region experiences low to severe land miombo has been identified as one of the world’s biodi-degradation (Table 1). In addition to erosion, conversion versity hotspots that need a global conservation strategyof forests has adverse effect on soil organic carbon which (Mittermeier et al., 2003).include decline in soil structure, soil compaction, reduct- Another global concern is the amount of green houseion in activity and diversity of soil fauna and nutrient dep- gas emission due to conversion of the miombo woodland.letion (Lal, 2004). Recent evidence demonstrates that Although per capita CO2 emission levels are lower thandeforestation not only influences the soil biological pools the world average, there has been an increase in emis-and fluxes, but also can modify the association of biolo- sions over the 1990 baseline (Table 1). According to thegical properties of the soils (Nourbakhsh, 2007). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) rep- Biodiversity is also under threat as species-rich miom- orts (2000), land-use changes have been releasing 1.6 -bo woodlands have been converted to relatively species- 1.7 Gt carbon annually, which is about a third of the emis-poor farmlands and plantations. The negative effect of sions from fossil fuels and cement production. Estimateddeforestation on species richness and diversity in the woody biomass fuel consumption alone amounts to aboutmiombo has been demonstrated by scientific studies 48 Tg annually, releasing almost 22 Tg carbon (Desanker(Chidumayo 1987a). Fire and human-created gaps inside et al., 1997). Other natural and anthropogenic processes,forest-reserve also offer opportunities for establishment such as wildland burning, clearance of land for cultiva-of invasive species, which are a threat to biodiversity. A tion, slash-and-burn agriculture and the cultivation of wet-severe late fire may destroy the over-storey entirely and lands, also contribute unquantified amounts of trace gas-the resultant “fire hole” may be rapidly colonized by unde- es to the atmosphere, as well as altering the nature of thesirable thicket shrubs and scramblers (Piearce, 1986). land cover and hydrological processes in the miomboAccording to the Global Forest Resources Assessment (Desanker et al. 1997).(FAO, 2000), some 4 - 191 forest tree species are endan- If agricultural productivity is to be sustained and thegered in the miombo eco-region. A number of other plant miombo woodland conserved, alternative land use strate-and animal species are also threatened (Table 1). The gies are urgently needed. Agroforestry is often as a land
070 Afr. J. Environ. Sci. Technol.use management system that offers solutions to land and services can provide significant, measurable benefits toforest degradation and to the loss of biodiversity in the humanity, potentially providing an economic argument fortropics (Oke and Odebiyi, 2007). Over the past two deca- ecosystem conservation (Kremen et al., 2002). Eco-des, agroforestry has been promoted as one of the alter- systems services are becoming so degraded that manynative land use approaches for meeting the conflicting regions in the world risk ecological collapse (Tallis andgoals of agricultural production and environmental ste- Kareiva, 2005). Yet, their ecological and economic impor-wardship in southern Africa. Much of the current endea- tance is poorly understood (Daily, 1997; Kremen et al.,vour in agroforestry development in the miombo has 2002). Generally, ecosystem services are grouped intofocused on increasing crop yields to meet the needs for four categories: (1) provisioning services (2) regulatinghuman subsistence (Akinnifesi et al., 2006a; Mafongoya services, (3) supporting services and (4) cultural serviceset al., 2006). This pressing objective has tended to create (Tallis and Kareiva, 2005). The discussion below is struc-management aimed at only maximizing the primary con- tured in the context of this classification.cern of “soil fertility improvement”. Little attempt has been made to review and synthesizeknowledge on the functions, processes and capabilities of Provisioning Servicesagroforestry practices being promoted in southern Africa. Provisioning services are the products obtained from eco-This has led to little appreciation of the environmental systems, including genetic resources, food, energy, fibrebenefits of agroforestry, and hence less attention being and fresh water.paid to accelerating its adoption in policy making processin the region. This highlights the urgent need for synthe-sis of the current state of knowledge. We believe such Food and medicinal productssyntheses will aid formulation of evidence-based practicalguidelines and policies for the promotion of agroforestry Non-timber forest products such as fruits, medicinal pro-in southern Africa. Therefore, the objective of this review ducts, mushrooms, honey, caterpillars, flying termites andis to avail the state of current knowledge to a wider audi- bush meat from the miombo woodlands are central to theence. The review will focus on Malawi, Mozambique, livelihoods of both rural and urban dwellers (Akinnifesi etTanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe, which are covered by al., 2006; Makonda and Gillah, 2007). Indigenous miom-the miombo eco-region and where agroforestry research bo fruits form a staple food during the hunger periods inhas been going on for the last two decades. Here, agro- the agricultural cycle and periods of famine (Akinnifesi etforestry is broadly defined as the set of land use practices al., 2006; Mangu, 1999). It is argued that without this val-involving deliberate combination of trees (including sh- uable contribution many children who are most vulnera-rubs, palms and bamboos) and agricultural crops and/or ble and the chief consumers of fruits would be affected byanimals on the same land management unit in some form dietary deficiencies (Makombe, 1993). Fruits are used asof spatial arrangement or temporal sequence such that food, beverages, and sources of essential oils for cookingthere are significant ecological and economic interactions (Akinnifesi et al., 2006).between tree and agricultural components (Sinclair, Efforts are being made to domesticate, improve and int-1999). In this definition agroforests, which are complex roduce miombo trees into agroforestry systems in south-agroforestry systems looking like and functioning as ern Africa (Akinnifesi et al., 2006). The achievements ofnatural forest ecosystems, but are integrated into agricul- this effort have been recently documented by Akinnifesitural management systems are included (Oke an Odebiyi, et al. (2006). Currently over 6000 farmers are involved in2007). This broader definition is preferred because far- on-farm testing of indigenous fruit trees in the field andmers and forest dwellers, where agroforestry has deve- homesteads. More than 12,000 farmers were trained inloped as a significant land use, have tended to practice nursery establishment and at least 5000 individual far-agroforestry by either integrating many tree species in mers are managing their own nurseries in Malawi, Mo-various productive niches on their farms or by managing zambique, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Adoptionbiodiverse forest resources. by farmers, improved utilization and commercialization of tree products is considered as an incentive for conser- vation, and as a deterrent to destructive extraction fromHow Can Agroforestry Contribute To Ecosystem the miombo.Services? Over 80% of the rural community in southern Africa also depends on medicinal plants for most of their healthHumans have always depended on nature for environ- needs. The bark extract of fruit trees such as Sclerocaryamental assets like clean water, nutrient cycling and soil birrea are used for the treatment of diseases such asformation (Tallis and Kareiva, 2005). These have been malaria, dysentery, diarrhoea and rheumatism (Hall et al.,called by different names through human history, but are 2002). The damage caused by destructive bark harves-presently gaining global attention as ‘ecosystem servi- ting of medicinal plants in miombo woodlands is alsoces’, defined as the set of diverse ecological functions huge (Makonda and Gillah, 2007). Because of destructivethat are essential to human welfare (Daily, 1997). These harvesting and economic pressures, species such as
Sileshi et al. 071 -1Prunus africana is now threatened (Cunningham et al., produced about 51 t ha ) at low nutrient costs (Kimaro et2002). As the rate of growth for most of the medicinal al., 2007). According to Kimaro, on a semi-arid site (Mo-species are slow, the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) rogoro) in Tanzania, wood productivity in tree fallowsis promoting a deliberate domestication strategy in averaged three times higher than that produced by typicalsouthern Africa. miombo woodlands. Therefore, adoption of agroforestry The miombo is also a source of other food such as practices can significantly reduce deforestation of thehoney and edible caterpillars. Several different types of miombo by providing fuel wood (Ramadhani et al., 2002).caterpillars are of increasing socio-economic importance Per capita firewood consumption for an average familyamong local people in the miombo (Chidumayo and Mba- of six dependent on the miombo source is 10 kg perta, 2002). Mbata et al. (2002) have identified Gynanisa week (Biran et al., 2004). Based on this estimate, woodmaja and Gonimbrasia zambesina as the most important yields of rotational woodlot systems utilizing species suchcommercial species of edible caterpillars in the miombo as A. crassicarpa would be sufficient to meet the house-woodlands of northern Zambia. However, populations of hold fuelwood demands for 7 – 16 years (Kimaro et al.,the caterpillars are becoming extinct locally due to unsus- 2007). Such high wood yields exemplify the significancetainable harvesting of the caterpillars as well as the host and potential of agroforestry systems in meeting localplants. The method of harvesting edible caterpillars has firewood demands, as well as conserving natural forestsin turn contributed to deforestation in the miombo (Hold- that currently serve as the main local source of fuelwooden, 1991). Some of the tree species (e.g. Anisophyllea in the region (Kimaro et al., 2007). In the growth and de-boehmii, Parinari curatellifolia, Sclerocarya birrea, Syzy- velopment strategies of countries such as Malawi, prod-gium guineense, Uapaca kirkiana) on which edible cater- uction of cash crops like tobacco will continue to be thepillars breed are among the priority indigenous fruit trees core sectors of the economy. Agroforestry plantations areselected for domestication in southern Africa. This offers probably the only option to meet a major share of theopportunities for integration of edible caterpillars into wood demand. Biofuel production from species such asagroforestry systems (Holden 1991). Jatropha curcas can also be integrated with agroforestry practices including contour planting, live fences and hed- ges.EnergyOver 90% of the people in the miombo depend on fuelwood for their energy needs (Chilufya and Tengnäs, Fodder1996). The demand for fuel wood and charcoal continueto rise while growth of trees and shrubs in the miombo The majority of the smallholder farmers in the miombooccur at a slower rate. Agro-processing operations such eco-region keep livestock under rangeland conditions.as tobacco curing require large quantities of fuel wood. However, farmers face fodder shortage especially during 3For example, 9 - 37 and 19 - 33 m of wood per ton of the dry season when most pastures have dried up. Antobacco is required for flue and fire-cured tobacco (Geist, agroforestry practice called fodder bank, which involves2000). To meet the wood demand of tobacco curing, planting fodder trees and shrubs has been instituted in140,000 ha of miombo woodlands are annually cleared Tanzania, Malawi and Zimbabwe particularly under the(Chenje and Johnson 1994). This accounts for 4 - 26% of smallholder dairy sector. The trees and shrubs are grownthe deforestation in the miombo eco-region (Geist, largely along boundaries, pathways and across contours1999a). to curb soil erosion. The fodder can be used for con- Agroforestry practices can provide significant amounts trolled browsing or feeding to animals in an enclosure in aof fuel wood. For example fuelwood production in the cut-and carry fashion.Chagga home gardens of Tanzania is estimated at 1.5-3 The fodder shrubs are harvested periodically during the -1 -1m³ ha year ). Assuming a minimum consumption of 1 growing season and used either as a supplement or a -1m³ per adult year and if each family requires 4-6 m³ substitute to the more expensive dairy concentrate. Work -1year , a home garden supplies 25 - 33% of the house- conducted in East Africa shows that 500 shrubs of spe-hold fuelwood requirements (Fernandes et al., 1984). cies such as Calliandra calothyrsus are sufficient to feedStudies have also shown that trees grown in contour str- one dairy cow for one year when used as a substitute toips, rotational woodlots and fallows can produce large dairy concentrate (Franzel and Wambugu, 2007). Feed-quantities of fuel wood (Table 2). For example, Grevillea ing the shrub forages has also resulted in significantlyrobusta trees planted on contours on an average farm higher milk quality and cow condition. The fodder shrubssize of 1.64 ha in parts of Tanzania could meet the entire have real potential to alleviate livestock feed shortages,annual household demand for fuel wood (Mwihomeke reverse the negative effects of over-grazing and improveand Chamshama, 2004). Fuel wood production in rota- on livelihoods of smallholder farmers. Over 200,000 far-tional woodlots has been studied widely especially in mers in East and southern Africa have established fodderTanzania (Kimaro et al., 2007; Nyadzi et al., 2003; Otsyi- banks (Chakeredza et al., 2007; Franzel and Wambugu,na, 1999). After five years rotation, Acacia crassicarpa 2007).
072 Afr. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. Table 2. Potential annual harvestable fuel produced by trees planted in contour strips (CS), woodlots (WL), coppicing fallows (CF) and non-coppicing fallows (NCF). Agroforestry Country Site Tree species Age Quantity References practice (years) -1 -1 (t ha Yr ) CS Tanzania Lushoto Calliandra 4.5 3.2 Mwihomeke & Chamshama (2004) Lushoto Casuarina 4.5 1.8 Mwihomeke & Chamshama (2004) Lushoto Croton 4.5 1.5 Mwihomeke & Chamshama (2004) Lushoto Grevillea 4.5 2.7 Mwihomeke & Chamshama (2004) WL Tanzania Mganga A. crassicarpa 5 22.4 Otsyina (1999) Kiwango A. crassicarpa 4 24 Otsyina (1999) Dotto A. crassicarpa 4 19.5 Otsyina (1999) Sanania A. crassicarpa 4 21.0 Otsyina (1999) Shinyanga A. nilotica 7 1.2 Nyadzi et al. (2003) Shinyanga A. polycantha 7 10.1 Nyadzi et al. (2003) Shinyanga Leucaena 7 12.7 Nyadzi et al. (2003) Morogoro A. crassicarpa 5 51.0 Kimaro et al. (2007) Morogoro A. mangium 5 40 Kimaro et al. (2007) Morogoro A. polycantha 5 39 Kimaro et al. (2007) Morogoro A. nilotica 5 27 Kimaro et al. (2007) Morogoro Gliricidia 5 30 Kimaro et al. (2007) CF Zambia Chipata Senna 3 10.7 Ngugi (2002) Chipata Leucaena 3 9.7 Ngugi (2002) Chipata Sesbania 3 8.0 Ngugi (2002) Chipata Gliricidia 3 7.0 Ngugi (2002) NCF Zambia Chipata Sesbania 1-3 7.3 Kwesiga and Coe, 1994Regulating Services traditional agroforestry practices in southern Africa. Specific examples of parklands include the coffee / Faid-Regulating services are the benefits obtained from proc- herbia albida system in Tanzania, and the F. albida / mai-esses, including the regulation of climate, control of flood ze system in southern and central Malawi (Saka et al.,and some human diseases. 1994). The tree litter and canopy have been documented to influence the microclimate in terms of improved rainfallMicroclimate modification infiltration, soil structure and microfau-na, reduced evapo- transpiration and temperature extremes, and increasedTrees and shrubs in agroforestry systems can contribute relative humidity (Saka et al., 1994). In agroforests andto better microclimate by providing shade and windbreak. homegardens, crops such as coffee are grown under aThe trees bring about a whole complex of environmental canopy of shade trees that may be remnants of the origi-changes, affecting not just available light but also air nal forest or have been deliberately planted. A typicaltemperature, humidity, soil temperature, soil moisture example of this is the agroforestry sys-tem of the Chaggacontent, wind movement, pest and disease complexes homegardens in Tanzania (Hemp 2006). The homegar-(Sileshi et al., 2007a). These factors impact plants, and dens maintain not only a high biodi-versity, they are anthe effect can be beneficial to a wide array of crops. old and very sustainable way of land use that meets se-There is increasing evidence demonstrating the enrich- veral different demands. The high demand for wood, in-ment of natural shade agroforestry with planted legume- troduction of coffee varieties that are sun-tolerant and lownose trees is a promising management option to improve coffee prices on the world market endanger the Chaggayields of crops and keep complex agroforestry systems homegardens.with their high functional biodiversity (Bos et al., 2007;Rice and Greenberg, 2000). Erosion control and soil conservation Farmers in the miombo have traditionally managed andexploited the shady environment under trees. The Miombo woodlands are being converted to farmland at ancultivation of crops under canopies of trees in parklands, annual rate of 2.4% in countries such as Malawi andhomegardens and agroforests are the most notable of Zambia and between 2 to 22% of the natural forest area
Sileshi et al. 073has been lost during 1990-2000 (Table 1). Rooted in co- the Miombo eco-region, little effort has been made tolonial interventions, the agricultural economies based on incorporate agroforestry in desertification-reduction activi-export crops were increasingly drawn into the world mar- ties.ket. Tobacco became an important crop in the miombo,and its increased production led to accelerated conver-sion of woodland areas to crop land and increased wood Carbon sequestrationdemand for curing (Chenje and Johnson 1994; Geist, Land use change has a significant impact on below gro-1999b). und carbon (C) stocks in the miombo (Walker and Desan- Conversion of woodlands to crop land has led to soil ker, 2004). Conversion of woodland to agricultural landerosion, continuous loss of nutrients and degradation of depletes terrestrial C stocks by drastically reducing the15% of the regions land. The severity of recent floods is vegetation C and soil organic carbon (SOC) pools. Introd-an indicator that water regulating ecosystem services are uction of trees in agroforestry arrangements has the pot-stressed. According to a recent analysis, with each 10% ential to increase soil organic matter (SOM) and storedecrease in natural forest area in the countries included significant amounts of C in woody biomass (Unruh et al.,in the analysis (some from the miombo-ecoregion), flood 1993; Figure 1). For smallholder agroforestry systems infrequency increased by 4 - 28% (Bradshaw et al., 2007). the tropics, potential C sequestration rates range from 1.5The annual net nutrient depletion exceeds 30 kg nitrogen -1 -1 to 3.5 t C ha y (Montagnini and Nair, 2004). For exam- -1and 20 kg potassium ha of arable land (Stoorvogel and ple in Zambia, two to 12 year old trees in Leucaena sppSmaling, 1990). Malawi alone loses between US$350 -1 woodlots stored up to 74 t ha in aboveground biomassmillion worth of nitrogen and phosphorus through erosion -1 and 140 t ha in the soil (Kaonga, 2005). Coppicing fall-each year, which translates to a gross annual loss of ows of Gliricidia sepium, Senna siamea, Acacia and Leu-income of US$6.6-19.0 million. This is equivalent to 3% caena spp. store more C than the short duration fallowsof the agricultural GDP of Malawi (Bojo, 1996). One of of Tephrosia, Sesbania and pigeon pea (Figure 1). Eventhe main conceptual foundations of tropical agroforestry simple systems, such as the gliricidia-maize intercroppingis that trees control soil erosion and improve the soil practiced in Malawi, recycle substantial amounts of abovebeneath them. Researchers have developed various ground C stocks to the soil via the organic materials (Fig-agroforestry practices including contour planting, contour ure 1). Although the average C stocks per unit area ofhedges and woodlots for soil and water conservation. For agroforestry systems practiced in southern Africa areexample Leucaena contour hedges have effectively lower than what is reported in temperate areas, net orga-controlled soil erosion on steep slopes in Malawi (Banda -1 nic C intakes of improved fall-ows (1.4 – 4.3 t ha yr ) -1et al., 1994). -1 -1 and woodlots (3.5 – 8.0 t ha yr ) were comparable to those of planted and natural sub-humid ecosystems (Ka-Mitigating desertification onga, 2005). The analysis of C stocks from various parts of theDesertification has emerged as an environmental crisis of world shows that 1100 – 2200 Tg C could be removedglobal proportions, currently affecting an estimated 100 to from the atmosphere over the next 50 years if agrofores-200 million people, and threatening the lives and lively- try systems are implemented on a global scale (Albrechthoods of a much larger number. As a result of desertifi- and Kandji, 2003). Based on assessments of nationalcation, persistent reductions in the capacity of ecosys- and global terrestrial C sinks, Kursten and Burscheltems to provide services such as food, water and other (1993) identified two primary mitigatory effects of agrofor-necessities, are leading to a major decline in the well- estry on CO2 emissions. The first direct near-term effect isbeing of people living in drylands. There is also mounting C storage in trees and soils through accumulation in live -1 -evidence that desertification leads to adverse impacts on tree biomass (3 - 60 t ha ), wood products (1 - 100 t ha 1 -1adjacent non-drylands, which may include downstream ), and SOM (10 - 50 t ha ), and through protection of -1flooding, impairment of global carbon sequestration capa- existing forests (up to 1000 t ha ). Secondly, agroforestrycity, and climate change. has potential to offset greenhouse gas emissions through The role of agroforestry in combating desertification has energy and material substitution, and reduction of fertili- -1been widely recognized. In arid and semi-arid areas, zer C foot print. About 5 - 360 t ha of greenhouse gasexpansion of forested areas can be viewed as a emissions are offset through energy substitution, up to -1 -1desertification-reduction activity (IPCC, 2000). Therefore, 100 t ha through material substitution and 1 - 5 t haagroforestry has become one of the activities of the through reduction of fertilizer inputs. In addition, agrofor-thematic programme network (TPN) in Asia, Africa and estry can enhance C sequestration by decreasing pres-Latin America established in the framework of the sure on natural forests, which are a terrestrial C sink.UNCCD implementation (UNCCD, 2007). In Senegal, two The total carbon emission from global deforestation -1successive phases of the IFAD-initiated agroforestry which is currently estimated at the rate of 17 million ha yproject to combat desertification have helped improve soil is 1600 Tg. Assuming that one hectare of agroforestryfertility, access to water and regeneration of tree cover. In could save 5 hectares from deforestation and that agro-
074 Afr. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. Carbon stored in tree biomass (t/ha). 50 Soil organic C stock (t/ha) 45 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 40 0 35 20 . 30 40 25 60 20 Depth (cm) 80 15 100 10 120 5 0 140 Miombo Noncoppicing Coppicing Woodlot 160 fallow fallow Wood lot 180 Coppicing Agroforestry practice 200 Noncoppicing (a) (b) 7 7 Experiment 1 (MZ12) Experiment 1 (MZ21) . Sole maize 6 Sole maize 6 . Gliricidia-maize Gliricidia-maize Above-ground carbon (t/ha) 5 Above-ground carbon (t/ha) 5 4 4 3 3 2 2 1 1 0 0 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Year Year (c) (d) Soil organic C stocks (t/ha) Soil organic C stocks (t/ha) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 0 20 . 20 40 40 60 60 . Depth (cm) 80 80 Depth (cm) 100 100 120 120 140 Experiment 1 (MZ12) 140 Experiment 2 (MZ 21) 160 160 Sole maize Sole maize 180 180 Gliricidia maize Gliricidia maize 200 200 (e) (f) Figure 1. (a) Carbon storage in tree biomass and (b) stocks in the soil depths under woodlots, Miombo woodland, and coppicing and noncoppicing fallows at Msekera, Zambia (Source: Kaonga, 2003); (c & d) organic carbon recycled via the organic materials and (e & f) organic carbon in the soil profile in gliricidia-maize intercropping and sole maize in two experiments at Makoka, Malawi (Source: Makumba, 2003). Woodlots were 12 year old trees of Leucaeana species; coppicing fallows were two to 7 year old Gliricidia, Leucaena spp., Senna, calliandra; noncoppicing fallows were two-year-old Sesbania sesban, Tephrosia spp. and pigeon pea (Source: Kaonga, 2003).
Sileshi et al. 075forestry systems could be established on up to 2 million However, nutrient accumulation and export from thehectares annually, a significant portion of C emissions site are crucial considerations for sustained productivitycaused by deforestation could be reduced (Palm et al. of short-rotation high yield agroforestry systems where1999). There is a growing consensus among scientists nutrient removal through frequent biomass harvests maythat agroforestry is a viable option of enhancing the ter- exceed replenishment rates through natural processesrestrial C sink (Lal, 2004) and an environmentally-friendly such as mineral weathering, atmospheric inputs, and bio-facility under the Clean Development Mechanism (Antle logical fixation (Kimaro et al., 2007). Some studies haveet al., 2007; Wise and Cacho, 2005). Recent analyses considered these issues in the rotational woodlots, andconducted in Australia (Wise and Cacho, 2005) and Peru encouraging results have been found. For example, after(Antle et al., 2007) have shown that agroforestry systems five years soil organic carbon and exchangeable cationare profitable at certain levels of C prices. Little research levels in Acacia polycantha and Acacia mangium wood-has been conducted on this aspect in the Miombo eco- lots reached close to natural status of miombo wood-region. lands. Initially deficient in soil N and P for maize culture, top soils after fallowing were replenished sufficiently in nutrients to support one cropping season of maize with-Control of crop pests out fertilizer supplementation (Kimaro et al., 2007). TheseIn the miombo, reduction of agro-biodiversity and conti- results reflect the high potential of the rotational woodlotsnuous monoculture of crops with minimal rotation has a to improve maize production after wood harvest.tendency to deplete the soil and for crop pests to become Several tree-mediated processes determine the extentendemic (Geist, 1999b). The shortening of fallow periods and rate of soil quality improvement, viz. (1) increasedmay increase the intensity of serious pests including nitrogen (N) input through biological N fixation by legumewitch weeds (Striga spp) (Sileshi et al., 2006). There is trees (Mafongoya et al., 2004), (2) enhanced availabilitygrowing evidence showing that some agroforestry prac- of nutrients resulting from production and decompositiontices can drastically reduce serious pests of maize such of tree biomass (Akinnifesi et al., 2006; Mafongoya et al.,as termites (Sileshi et al., 2005) and weeds (Sileshi et al., 2006; Chirwa et al., 2006), (3) greater uptake and utili-2006) in southern Africa. Agroforestry increases plant zation of nutrients from deeper layers of soils by deep-diversity and structural complexity, with implications on rooted trees (Chirwa et al., 2006), (4) increased activity ofpest population dynamics. It is an ecological maxim that soil biota (Sileshi and Mafongoya, 2006a &b), (5) impro-diversity is closely related to stability because structural vement in water dynamics (Chirwa et al., 2007; Phiri etheterogeneity and genetic diversity regulate pest popula- al., 2003). A recent synthesis (Sileshi et al., 2007b)tions. However, simply increasing diversity will not neces- shows that these improvements in soil quality in turnsarily increase the stability of all agro-ecosystems (Sileshi result in improved agricultural productivity and increasedet al., 2007a). In a recent review, Sileshi et al. (2007a) yields of staple crops such as maize.provided specific examples and situations where agrofo-restry practices reduce pests in the miombo eco-region. Biodiversity conservation The accelerated extinction of species may disrupt vitalSupporting services ecosystem processes and services (Sekerciolglu et al., 2004). Reductions in species abundance and richnessSupporting ecosystem services are those that are neces- are also likely to have far-reaching consequences, includ-sary for the production of all other ecosystem services. ing the loss of agricultural pest control, and the spread ofSome examples include biomass production, production disease.of atmospheric oxygen, soil formation and retention, nutr- Agroforestry systems can be integrated into biodiver-ient cycling, water cycling, and provisioning of habitat. sity corridors for a variety of uses, such as timber and non-timber forest products, thereby minimizing the exploi- tation of protected areas (Huang et al., 2002). In areasBiomass production and soil fertility improvement where the forest has been lost, indigenous fruit and tim- ber trees are grown as companion species to provideTrees planted in contour strips, improved fallows, rota- environmental services. In southern Cameroon and eas-tional woodlots and intercrops with crops fix nitrogen and tern Brazil, cocoa agroforests have been credited withproduce large amounts of biomass that improve soil qua- conserving the biodiversity of the humid forest zone,lity. The repeated application of tree biomass to the soil including birds, ants and other wildlife (Rice and Green-increases soil organic matter that leads to important incr- berg, 2000). In Tanzania efforts are being made to traineases in soil water retention capacity providing good en- farmers in agro forestry to protect nature reserves. Huangvironment for soil microbes and plant nutrients during its et al (2002) found a significant positive impact of agrofor-decomposition. These services cannot be offered under estry on the biodiversity conservation of nature reservesconventional crop monocultures. in Tanzania. A study in Zambia has also shown that agro-
076 Afr. J. Environ. Sci. Technol.forestry practices harbour more soil invertebrates than a scientific and technological development (Ajayi, 2007;monoculture maize (Sileshi and Mafongoya, 2006a,b). Carr 2004). There are several challenges to adoptionAgroforestry practices also harbours about the same (Ajayi et al., 2007; Kwesiga et al., 2003). For examplediversity and abundance of soil invertebrates as the mio- adoption of soil fertility management practices by farmersmbo woodland (Sileshi and Mafongoya, 2006a, b). This is affected by the biophysical characteristics of the tech-diversity can, in time, provide ecological resilience and nologies themselves, the individual and household con-contribute to the maintenance of beneficial ecological fun- ditions of farmers and, the policy institutional contextctions such as pest suppression. Even simple practices within which the adoption of technologies take place.such as rotational fallows could suppress insect pests Many smallholder farmers do not have the knowledge(Sileshi et al., 2005) and weeds (Sileshi et al., 2006). and skills to manage agroforestry. They also do not have access to the necessary resources such as seeds. ThePollination use of trees for soil fertility or other benefits involves quite new concepts and therefore farmers need some basicEvidence is mounting on the negative impact of agricultu- education (Carr, 2004). The limited capacity of extensionral practices on honey bees and other native bee commu- workers in number, time available and knowledge onnities that provide pollination services. The decline of pol- agroforestry makes it difficult for them to reach a largelination services with agricultural intensification resulted number of farmers. Lack of appropriate tree species andfrom significant reductions in both diversity and total shortage of tree seeds is another challenge. Access toabundance of native bees. Agricultural intensification may good quality seed is a persistent constraint to ruralaffect functionally important pollinator species dispropor- farmers (Kwesiga et al., 2003).tionately (Kremen et al., 2002). Restoring pollination ser- Although, the scientific community started promotingvices in areas of greatest agricultural intensity would agroforestry in the 1980s, the number of National Agri-require both reducing insecticide use and restoring native cultural Research Systems (NARS) involved in agro-or surrogate vegetation to provide nesting habitat and flo- forestry research and development (R and D) is small. Itral resources for bees when they are not using crops. is often the NARS which influence Rand D priorities inCurrently, communities in the miombo practice traditional each country, and if they do not include agroforestry inhoney hunting, which is destructive to both bees and their national programmes then funds will not be alloca-trees. The trees are usually felled in order to extract hon- ted for R and D. Past research and extension efforts haveey from their hollow trunks. Since cropping is not properly also been biased towards cultivation of exotic tree spe-timed, bees are killed off by the excessive fire that is cies and neglected indigenous species. This is probablyused to subdue them. Agroforestry can improve beekeep- because indigenous species have not been subjected toing (Chilufya and Tengnäs, 1996) because some trees positive agricultural or forestry policy (Campbell, 1987).used in agroforestry produce nectar and pollen and imp- The debate on the effect of reforestation on waterroved bee hives can be introduced in the fruit orchards, availability and flood control has also contributed to somewoodlots or fodder banks. misconceptions about agroforestry and tree planting in general. For example, there has been gross simplificationCultural services and generalization that trees consume too much water. This was essentially based on biased geographical dataCultural services are the non-material benefits people and monoculture plantation of exotic species (Nyberg,obtain from ecosystems through spiritual enrichment, 2007). This has been further exaggerated in the popularcognitive development, reflection, recreation, and aesthe- press, with headlines like “Down with Trees” in the Eco-tic experience, including knowledge systems, social nomist (Anon, 2005). Similarly, some reports (FAO-CIF-relations, and aesthetic values. In southern Africa, trees OR, 2005) argued that the evidence that trees reduceplay a crucial role in the cultural and spiritual lives of local flooding is weak and retaining or regenerating forestcommunities. In some communities in Mozambique, the areas is an economically dubious strategy from a flood-fruit tree S. birrea is considered as a sacred tree and it is reduction perspective. However, a comprehensive globalnever cut when clearing forests (Mangu, 1999). In the analysis (Bradshaw et al., 2007) provides strong evid-Manica Province, both U. kirkiana and S. birrea are ence that forests do reduce the frequency and severity ofknown to be of great importance due to their cultural floods in developing nations including those in the miom-value. Agroforestry appropriately places the traditional bo-ecoregion.values given by local communities to such trees in the Land tenure has long been considered a critical factorcontext of conservation and production. in the management of the miombo woodland as well as adoption and long-term maintenance of agroforestry pra-Challenges to Adoption ctices. For example, land tenure and use history signifi-Despite the remarkable potentials of agroforestry, the cantly influence the rate of woodland recovery and struc-level of institutionalization and farmer uptake has gene- ture of the miombo (Chidumayo, 2002). Lack of securerally lagged behind the advances that have been made in land tenure and property rights to trees, high labour costs
Sileshi et al. 077for tree management, poor institutionalization and policy they capture and store carbon in soils and biota, reduceconstraints, inadequate funding for research and exten- deforestation, produce low-carbon biosolids that serve assion, and lack of economic incentives for environmental substitutes for high-carbon fossil fuels, and they reduceservices also hinder progress (Ngugi, 2002; Mercer carbon losses through erosion. Therefore, agroforestry2004). Adoption of agroforestry is also limited by national has tremendous potential to help farmers and govern-and international policies that promote crop monocultures ments balance the conflicting goals of agricultural prod-and input subsidies. uction with environmental stewardship in the miombo. Farmers who first tested may also choose not to adopt Agroforestry can also be used to link forest fragmentsbecause the trees did not do well as a result of damage and other critical habitat as part of a broad landscapeby bush fires (Ajayi and Kwesiga, 2003), pests or disea- management strategy that enables species to be con-ses (Sileshi et al., 2007c). In the miombo, forest fires are served. This is common in much of temperate agrofor-widespread and almost invariably started by people (Ajayi estry, where the major interest is in the aggregated effectand Kwesiga, 2003; Eriksen, 2007). The prevalence of of trees at a landscape scale. For example, trees arefire has over time created a degree of fire dependency for used in integrated riparian management in the US to filterthe growth, production, regeneration and coexistence of out nitrates and phosphates from water running into stre-miombo species (Van Wilgen and Scholes, 1997) and as ams and in Australia to lower saline water tables to pre-land management tool by people. It is generally agreed vent salinization of agricultural land (Sinclair, 1999). Mod-that frequent uncontrolled fires are harmful both to vege- est considerations, like mixing tree species, allowing fortation and soil (Chidumayo, 2002; White, 1993) and biodi- small clearings and water catchments in planting, andversity (Sileshi and Mafongoya, 2006c). Much contro- incorporating under storey vegetation can also greatlyversy still surrounds discussions on fire utilization and the improve habitat for many animals and create micro-sitesustainability of indigenous land management practices. conditions for plant species. To achieve this, farmersThis controversy has been shown to be a result of a dis- need to be trained and supplied with a range of tree spe-cord between official fire policies and actual indigenous cies to suit the needs of different farmers and farm condi-fire management practices (Eriksen, 2007). tions. The participation of poor farmers in the emerging Pests and diseases represent a major threat to tree markets for carbon sequestration could potentially contri-planting in general and adoption of agroforestry in parti- bute to the goals of enhancing productivity and sustaina-cular in the miombo eco-region (Sileshi et al., 2007a, c). bility while reducing poverty. Recent analyses show thatPests and diseases reduce biomass production and dimi- participation in carbon contracts could also increasenish the goods and services from trees. Exotic tree spe- adoption of terraces and agroforestry practices (Antle etcies used in agroforestry can also become invasive and al., 2007). Environmental programs similar to thoseaffect ecosystem functions and biodiversity (Sileshi et al., adopted by the European Union that rewards farmers for2007a). Some Acacia, Prosopis, Casuarina species, covering their land by trees also need to be introduced inTithonia diversifolia and Leucaena leucocephala have the miombo-ecoregion.potentials to become invasive in southern Africa (Rich- Combating desertification, conserving biodiversity, andardson, 1998). It must be noted here that not all alien mitigating climate change are linked in many ways. Tospecies are invasive, and not all invasive species may be create system sustainability requires that multiple con-economically important. However, transformer species— cerns are addressed simultaneously, which will meana subset of invasive plants which change the character, joint implementation of the UN Conventions to Combatcondition, form or nature of a natural ecosystem over a Desertification, on Biological Diversity, and Climatesubstantial area—have profound effects on ecosystem Change. This requires an operational shift in thinking andfunctions and biodiversity (Richardson, 1998). strategy that recognizes the broader working nature of managed landscapes, along with new ways of valuing the productive and protective functions. Agroforestry offers aCONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS vital opportunity for the implementation of such a strate-From the work reviewed and discussion presented, it is gy. To bring about a shift in thinking, first national agricul-concluded that when properly designed and strategically tural research organizations need to recognize the contri-located, agroforestry practices can contribute to ecosys- bution of agroforestry to ecosystem services. Existingtem services by mitigating land degradation, climate policies on tree and land tenure as well as fire manage-change and desertification, while adding structural and ment also need to be reviewed to make them more res-functional diversity to the agricultural landscapes in the ponsive to emerging challenges. Regulation of land usemiombo. Where agroforestry is applied to restore degra- and land tenure is crucial to both the proper managementded lands, it also is likely to provide tree-based goods of miombo woodland and adoption of agroforestry.and services while keeping the land in agricultural prod-uction. 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