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Vedanta (//; Sanskrit: वेदान्त, IAST, Vedānta) or Uttara Mīmāṃsā is one of de six ordodox (āstika) schoows of Hindu phiwosophy. Vedanta witerawwy means "end of de Vedas", refwecting ideas dat emerged from de specuwations and phiwosophies contained in de Upanishads. It does not stand for one comprehensive or unifying doctrine. Rader it is an umbrewwa term for many sub-traditions, ranging from duawism to non-duawism, aww of which devewoped on de basis of a common textuaw connection cawwed de Prasdanatrayi. The Prasdanatrayi is a cowwective term for de Principaw Upanishads, de Brahma Sutras and de Bhagavad Gita.
Aww Vedanta schoows, in deir dewiberations, concern demsewves wif de fowwowing dree categories but differ in deir views regarding de concept and de rewations between dem: Brahman – de uwtimate metaphysicaw reawity, Ātman / Jivātman – de individuaw souw or sewf, and Prakriti – de empiricaw worwd, ever-changing physicaw universe, body and matter.
Some of de better known sub-traditions of Vedanta incwude Advaita (non-duawism), Vishishtadvaita (qwawified non-duawism), and Dvaita (duawism). Most oder Vedantic sub-traditions are subsumed under de term Bhedabheda (difference and non-difference). Over time, Vedanta adopted ideas from oder ordodox (āstika) schoows wike Yoga and Nyaya, and, drough dis syncretism, became de most prominent schoow of Hinduism. Many extant forms of Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Shaktism have been significantwy shaped and infwuenced by de doctrines of different schoows of Vedanta. The Vedanta schoow has had a historic and centraw infwuence on Hinduism.
- 1 Etymowogy and nomencwature
- 2 Prasdanatrayi, de Three Sources
- 3 History
- 4 Overview of de schoows of Vedanta
- 5 Vedanta phiwosophy
- 6 Infwuence
- 7 Reception
- 8 Simiwarities wif Spinoza's phiwosophy
- 9 See awso
- 10 Notes
- 11 References
- 12 Sources
- 13 Furder reading
Etymowogy and nomencwature
The word Vedanta witerawwy means de end of de Vedas and originawwy referred to de Upanishads. Vedanta was concerned wif de jñānakāṇḍa or Vedic knowwedge part cawwed de Upanishads. The denotation of Vedanta subseqwentwy widened to incwude de various phiwosophicaw traditions based on to de Prasdanatrayi.
- These were de wast witerary products of de Vedic period.
- These mark de cuwmination of Vedic dought.
- These were taught and debated wast, in de Brahmacharya (student) stage.
Vedanta is one of de six ordodox (āstika) schoows of Indian phiwosophy. It is awso cawwed Uttara Mīmāṃsā, de 'watter enqwiry' or 'higher enqwiry'; and is often contrasted wif Pūrva Mīmāṃsā, de 'former enqwiry' or 'primary enqwiry'. Pūrva Mīmāṃsā deaws wif de karmakāṇḍa or rituaws part (de Samhita and Brahmanas) in de Vedas.[note 1]
Prasdanatrayi, de Three Sources
The Upanishads, de Bhagavadgita and de Brahma Sutras constitute de basis of Vedanta. Aww schoows of Vedanta propound deir phiwosophy by interpreting dese texts, cowwectivewy cawwed de Prasdanatrayi, witerawwy, dree sources.
- The Upanishads,[note 2] or Śruti prasfāna; considered de Sruti, de “heard” (and repeated) foundation of Vedanta.
- The Brahma Sutras, or Nyaya prasdana / Yukti prasdana; considered de reason-based foundation of Vedanta.
- The Bhagavad Gita, or Smriti prasfāna; considered de Smriti (remembered tradition) foundation of Vedanta.
The Brahma Sutras attempted to syndesize de teachings of de Upanishads. The diversity in de teaching of de Upanishads necessitated de systematization of dese teachings. This was wikewy done in many ways in ancient India, but de onwy surviving version of dis syndesis is de Brahma Sutras of Badarayana.
Aww major Vedantic teachers, incwuding Shankara, Bhaskara, Ramanuja, Nimbarka, Vawwabha and Madhva, have composed commentaries not onwy on de Upanishads and Brahma Sutras, but awso on de Bhagavad Gita. The Bhagavad Gita, due to its syncretism of Samkhya, Yoga, and Upanishadic dought, has pwayed a major rowe in Vedantic dought.
The Upanishads do not present a rigorous phiwosophicaw inqwiry in de form of identifying various doctrines and den presenting arguments for or against dem. They form de basic texts and Vedanta interprets dem drough rigorous phiwosophicaw exegesis. Varying interpretations of de Upanishads and deir syndesis, de Brahma Sutras, wed to de devewopment of different schoows of Vedanta over time of which dree, four, five or six[note 3] are prominent.[note 4]
- Advaita, many schowars of which most prominent are Gaudapada (~500 CE) and Shankara (8f century CE)
- Vishishtadvaita, prominent schowars are Nadamuni, Yāmuna and Ramanuja (1017–1137 CE)
- Dvaita, founded by Madhvacharya (1199–1278 CE)
- Suddhadvaita, founded by Vawwabha (1479–1531 CE)
- Bhedabheda, as earwy as de 7f century CE, or even de 4f century CE. Some schowars are incwined to consider it as a "tradition" rader dan a schoow of Vedanta.
The history of Vedanta is divided into two periods: one prior to de composition of de Brahma Sutras and de oder encompassing de schoows dat devewoped after de Brahma Sutras were written, uh-hah-hah-hah.
Before de Brahma Sutras
Littwe is known of schoows of Vedanta existing before de composition of de Brahma Sutras (400–450 BCE).[note 5] It is cwear dat Badarayana, de writer of Brahma Sutras, was not de first person to systematize de teachings of de Upanishads, as he qwotes six Vedantic teachers before him – Ashmaradya, Badari, Auduwomi, Kashakrtsna, Karsnajini and Atreya. References to oder earwy Vedanta teachers – Brahmadatta, Sundara, Pandaya, Tanka and Dravidacharya – are found in secondary witerature of water periods. The works of dese ancient teachers have not survived, but based on de qwotes attributed to dem in water witerature, Sharma postuwates dat Ashmaradya and Auduwomi were Bhedabheda schowars, Kashakrtsna and Brahmadatta were Advaita schowars, whiwe Tanka and Dravidacharya were eider Advaita or Vishistadvaita schowars.
Badarayana summarized and interpreted teachings of de Upanishads in de Brahma Sutras, awso cawwed de Vedanta Sutra.[note 6] Badarayana summarized de teachings of de cwassicaw Upanishads[note 7] and refuted de rivaw phiwosophicaw schoows in ancient India. The Brahma Sutras waid de basis for de devewopment of Vedanta phiwosophy.
Though attributed to Badarayana, de Brahma Sutras were wikewy composed by muwtipwe audors over de course of hundreds of years. The estimates on when de Brahma Sutras were compwete vary, wif Nichowson in his 2013 review stating, dat dey were most wikewy compiwed in de present form around 400–450 BCE. Isaeva suggests dey were compwete and in current form by 200 CE, whiwe Nakamura states dat "de great part of de Sutra must have been in existence much earwier dan dat."
The book is composed of four chapters, each divided into four qwarters or sections. These sutras attempt to syndesize de diverse teachings of de Upanishads. However, de cryptic nature of aphorisms of de Brahma Sutras have reqwired exegeticaw commentaries. These commentaries have resuwted in de formation of numerous Vedanta schoows, each interpreting de texts in its own way and producing its own commentary.
Between de Brahma Sutras and Adi Shankara
Littwe wif specificity is known of de period between de Brahma Sutras (5f century BCE) and Adi Shankara (8f century CE). Onwy two writings of dis period have survived: de Vākyapadīya, written by Bhartṛhari (second hawf 5f century), and de Kārikā written by Gaudapada (earwy 6f or 7f century CE).
Shankara mentions 99 different predecessors of his schoow in his commentaries. A number of important earwy Vedanta dinkers have been wisted in de Siddhitraya by Yamunācārya (c. 1050), de Vedārdasamgraha by Rāmānuja (c. 1050–1157), and de Yatīndramatadīpikā by Śrīnivāsa Dāsa. At weast fourteen dinkers are known to have existed between de composition of de Brahma Sutras and Shankara's wifetime.[note 8]
A noted schowar of dis period was Bhartriprapancha. Bhartriprapancha maintained dat de Brahman is one and dere is unity, but dat dis unity has varieties. Schowars see Bhartriprapancha as an earwy phiwosopher in de wine who teach de tenet of Bhedabheda.
Gaudapada, Adi Shankara and Advaita Vedanta
Gaudapada (c. 6f century CE), was de teacher or a more distant predecessor of Govindapada, de teacher of Adi Shankara. Shankara is widewy considered as de founder of Advaita Vedanta. Gaudapada's treatise, de Kārikā—awso known as de Māṇḍukya Kārikā or de Āgama Śāstra—is de earwiest surviving compwete text on Advaita Vedanta.[note 9]
Gaudapada's Kārikā rewied on de Mandukya, Brihadaranyaka and Chhandogya Upanishads. In de Kārikā, Advaita (non-duawism) is estabwished on rationaw grounds (upapatti) independent of scripturaw revewation; its arguments are devoid of aww rewigious, mysticaw or schowastic ewements. Schowars are divided on a possibwe infwuence of Buddhism on Gaudapada's phiwosophy.[note 10] The fact dat Shankara, in addition to de Brahma Sutras, de principaw Upanishads and de Bhagvad Gita, wrote an independent commentary on de Kārikā proves its importance in Vedāntic witerature.
Adi Shankara (788–820), ewaborated on Gaudapada's work and more ancient schowarship to write detaiwed commentaries on de Prasdanatrayi and de Kārikā. The Mandukya Upanishad and de Kārikā have been described by Shankara as containing "de epitome of de substance of de import of Vedanta". It was Shankara who integrated Gaudapada work wif de ancient Brahma Sutras, "and give it a wocus cwassicus" awongside de reawistic strain of de Brahma Sutras.[note 11] His interpretation, incwuding works ascribed to him, has become de normative interpretation of Advaita Vedanta.[note 12]
A noted contemporary of Shankara was Maṇḍana Miśra, who regarded Mimamsa and Vedanta as forming a singwe system and advocated deir combination known as Karma-jnana-samuchchaya-vada.[note 13] The treatise on de differences between de Vedanta schoow and de Mimamsa schoow was a contribution of Adi Shankara. Advaita Vedanta rejects rituaws in favor of renunciation, for exampwe.
Ramanuja and Vishishtadvaita Vedanta
Rāmānuja (1017–1137 CE) was de most infwuentiaw phiwosopher in de Vishishtadvaita tradition, uh-hah-hah-hah. As de phiwosophicaw architect of Vishishtadvaita, he taught qwawified non-duawism. Ramanuja's teacher, Yadava Prakasha, fowwowed de Advaita monastic tradition, uh-hah-hah-hah. Tradition has it dat Ramanuja disagreed wif Yadava and Advaita Vedanta, and instead fowwowed Nadamuni and Yāmuna. Ramanuja reconciwed de Prasdanatrayi wif de deism and phiwosophy of de Vaishnava Awvars poet-saints. Ramanujan wrote a number of infwuentiaw texts, such as a bhasya on de Brahma Sutras and de Bhagavad Gita, aww in Sanskrit.
Ramanuja presented de epistemowogicaw and soteriowogicaw importance of bhakti, or de devotion to a personaw God (Vishnu in Ramanuja's case) as a means to spirituaw wiberation, uh-hah-hah-hah. His deories assert dat dere exists a pwurawity and distinction between Atman (souws) and Brahman (metaphysicaw, uwtimate reawity), whiwe he awso affirmed dat dere is unity of aww souws and dat de individuaw souw has de potentiaw to reawize identity wif de Brahman, uh-hah-hah-hah. Vishishtadvaiata provides de phiwosophicaw basis of Sri Vaishnavism.
Madhva and Dvaita
Dvaita was propounded by Madhvacharya (1238–1317 CE).[note 14] He presented de opposite interpretation of Shankara in his Dvaita, or duawistic system. In contrast to Shankara's non-duawism and Ramanuja's qwawified non-duawism, he championed unqwawified duawism. Madhva wrote commentaries on de chief Upanishads, de Bhagavad Gita and de Brahma Sutra.
Madhva started his Vedic studies at age seven, joined an Advaita Vedanta monastery in Dwarka (Gujarat), studied under guru Achyutrapreksha, freqwentwy disagreed wif him, weft de Advaita monastery, and founded Dvaita. Madhva and his fowwowers Jayatirda and Vyasatirda, were criticaw of aww competing Hindu phiwosophies, Jainism and Buddhism, but particuwarwy intense in deir criticism of Advaita Vedanta and Adi Shankara.
Dvaita Vedanta is deistic and it identifies Brahman wif Narayana, or more specificawwy Vishnu, in a manner simiwar to Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita Vedanta. But it is more expwicitwy pwurawistic. Madhva's emphasis for difference between souw and Brahman was so pronounced dat he taught dere were differences (1) between materiaw dings; (2) between materiaw dings and souws; (3) between materiaw dings and God; (4) between souws; and (5) between souws and God. He awso advocated for a difference in degrees in de possession of knowwedge. He awso advocated for differences in de enjoyment of bwiss even in de case of wiberated souws, a doctrine found in no oder system of Indian phiwosophy. 
Overview of de schoows of Vedanta
Schoows propounding Non-duawism
Advaita Vedanta (IAST Advaita Vedānta; Sanskrit: अद्वैत वेदान्त) espouses non-duawism and monism. Brahman is hewd to be de sowe unchanging metaphysicaw reawity and identicaw to Atman. The physicaw worwd, on de oder hand, is awways-changing empiricaw Maya.[note 15] The absowute and infinite Atman-Brahman is reawized by a process of negating everyding rewative, finite, empiricaw and changing. The schoow accepts no duawity, no wimited individuaw souws (Atman / Jivatman), and no separate unwimited cosmic souw. Aww souws and existence across space and time is considered as de same oneness (i.e. monism). Spirituaw wiberation in Advaita is de fuww comprehension and reawization of oneness, dat one's unchanging Atman (souw) is de same as de Atman in everyone ewse, as weww as being identicaw to de nirguna Brahman.
Vishishtadvaita asserts dat Jivatman (human souws) and Brahman (as Vishnu) are different, a difference dat is never transcended. Wif dis qwawification, Ramanuja awso affirmed monism by saying dat dere is unity of aww souws and dat de individuaw souw has de potentiaw to reawize identity wif de Brahman. Vishishtadvaita, wike Advaita, is a non-duawistic schoow of Vedanta in a qwawified way, and bof begin by assuming dat aww souws can hope for and achieve de state of bwissfuw wiberation, uh-hah-hah-hah. On de rewation between de Brahman and de worwd of matter (Prakriti), Vishishtadvaita states bof are two different absowutes, bof metaphysicawwy true and reaw, neider is fawse or iwwusive, and dat saguna Brahman wif attributes is awso reaw. Ramanuja states dat God, wike man, has bof souw and body, and de worwd of matter is de gwory of God's body. The paf to Brahman (Vishnu), according to Ramanuja, is devotion to godwiness and constant remembrance of de beauty and wove of de personaw god (bhakti of saguna Brahman).
Shuddhadvaita (pure non-duawism) states dat de entire universe is reaw and is subtwy Brahman onwy in de form of Krishna. Vawwabhacharya, de propounder of dis phiwosophy, agreed wif Advaita Vedanta's ontowogy, but emphasized dat prakriti (empiricaw worwd, body) is not separate from de Brahman, but just anoder manifestation of de watter. Everyding, everyone, everywhere—souw and body, wiving and non-wiving, jiva and matter—is de eternaw Krishna. The way to Krishna, in dis schoow, is bhakti. Vawwabha opposed renunciation of monistic sannyasa as ineffective and advocates de paf of devotion (bhakti) rader dan knowwedge (jnana). The goaw of bhakti is to turn away from ego, sewf-centered-ness and deception, and to turn towards de eternaw Krishna in everyding continuawwy offering freedom from samsara.
Schoow propounding Duawism - Dvaita
This schoow is based on de premise of duawism. Atman (souw) and Brahman (as Vishnu) are understood as two compwetewy different entities. Brahman is de creator of de universe, perfect in knowwedge, perfect in knowing, perfect in its power, and distinct from souws, distinct from matter. [note 16] In Dvaita Vedanta, an individuaw souw must feew attraction, wove, attachment and compwete devotionaw surrender to Vishnu for sawvation, and it is onwy His grace dat weads to redemption and sawvation, uh-hah-hah-hah. Madhva bewieved dat some souws are eternawwy doomed and damned, a view not found in Advaita and Vishishtadvaita Vedanta. Whiwe de Vishishtadvaita Vedanta asserted "qwawitative monism and qwantitative pwurawism of souws", Madhva asserted bof "qwawitative and qwantitative pwurawism of souws".
Schoows propounding Bhedabheda
Bhedābheda means "difference and non–difference" and is more a tradition dan a schoow of Vedanta. The schoows of dis tradition emphasize dat de individuaw sewf (Jīvatman) is bof different and not different from Brahman. Notabwe figures in dis schoow are Bhartriprapancha, Bhāskara (8f–9f century), Ramanuja's teacher Yādavaprakāśa, Nimbārka (13f century) who founded de Dvaitadvaita schoow, Caitanya (1486–1534) who founded de Achintya Bheda Abheda schoow and Vijñānabhikṣu (16f century). [note 17]
Bhaskara, in postuwating Upadhika, considers bof identity and difference to be eqwawwy reaw. As de causaw principwe, Brahman is considered non-duaw and formwess pure being and intewwigence. The same Brahman, manifest as events, becomes de worwd of pwurawity. Jīva is Brahman wimited by de mind. Matter and its wimitations are considered reaw, not a manifestation of ignorance. Bhaskara advocated bhakti as dhyana (meditation) directed toward de transcendentaw Brahman. He refuted de idea of Maya and denied de possibiwity of wiberation in bodiwy existence.
Nimbārka propounded Dvaitādvaita, based upon Bhedābheda as was taught by Bhāskara. Brahman (God), souws (chit) and matter or de universe (achit) are considered as dree eqwawwy reaw and co-eternaw reawities. Brahman is de controwwer (niyantr), de souw is de enjoyer (bhoktr), and de materiaw universe is de object enjoyed (bhogya). The Brahman is Krishna, de uwtimate cause who is omniscient, omnipotent, aww-pervading Being. He is de efficient cause of de universe because, as Lord of Karma and internaw ruwer of souws, He brings about creation so dat de souws can reap de conseqwences of deir karma. God is considered to be de materiaw cause of de universe because creation was a manifestation of His powers of souw (chit) and matter (achit); creation is a transformation (parinama) of God's powers. He can be reawized onwy drough a constant effort to merge onesewf wif His nature drough meditation and devotion, uh-hah-hah-hah. 
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu was de prime exponent of Achintya-Bheda-Abheda. In Sanskrit achintya means 'inconceivabwe'. Achintya-Bheda-Abheda represents de phiwosophy of "inconceivabwe difference in non-difference", in rewation to de non-duaw reawity of Brahman-Atman which it cawws (Krishna), svayam bhagavan. The notion of "inconceivabiwity" (acintyatva) is used to reconciwe apparentwy contradictory notions in Upanishadic teachings. This schoow asserts dat Krishna is Bhagavan of de bhakti yogins, de Brahman of de jnana yogins, and has a divine potency dat is inconceivabwe. He is aww-pervading and dus in aww parts of de universe (non-difference), yet he is inconceivabwy more (difference). This schoow is at de foundation of de Gaudiya Vaishnava rewigious tradition, uh-hah-hah-hah.
The important approaches fowwowed by de most noted proponents of different schoows of Vedanta are summarized bewow:
- To deorize dat de souw (Ātman / Jivātman) and de physicaw universe (Prakriti) are bof identicaw wif and different from Brahman. This view is hewd by Bhartriprapancha.
- To pwace non-duawistic ideas in de most important pwace, rewegating duawistic ideas to an interim position, uh-hah-hah-hah. This approach is fowwowed by Shankara.
- To deorize dat non-duawism is qwawified by difference. This is Ramanuja's approach.
- To emphasize duawism, discrediting and offering an awternative expwanation of non-duawistic ideas. This is from Madhva.
Sivananda gives de fowwowing expwanation:
Madhva said, "Man is de servant of God," and estabwished his Dvaita phiwosophy. Ramanuja said, "Man is a ray or spark of God," and estabwished his Visishtadvaita phiwosophy. Sankara said, "Man is identicaw wif Brahman or de Eternaw Souw," and estabwished his Kevawa Advaita phiwosophy.
Despite deir differences, aww schoows of Vedanta share some common features:
- Brahman exists as de unchanging materiaw cause and instrumentaw cause of de worwd.
- The Upanishads are a rewiabwe source of knowwedge (Sruti Śabda in Pramana); Vedanta is de pursuit of knowwedge into de Brahman and de Ātman.
- Bewief in rebirf and de desirabiwity of rewease from de cycwe of rebirds, (mokşa).
- The sewf (Ātman / Jivātman) is de agent of its own acts (karma) and de recipient of de conseqwences of dese actions.
- Rejection of Buddhism and Jainism and concwusions of de oder Vedic schoows (Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, and, to some extent, de Purva Mimamsa.
Vedanta phiwosophies discuss dree fundamentaw metaphysicaw categories and de rewations between de dree.
- Brahman or Ishvara: de uwtimate reawity
- Ātman or Jivātman: de individuaw souw, sewf
- Prakriti/Jagat: de empiricaw worwd, ever–changing physicaw universe, body and matter
Brahman / Ishvara - Conceptions of de Supreme Reawity
Shankara, in formuwating Advaita, tawks of two conceptions of Brahman: de higher Brahman as undifferentiated Being, and a wower Brahman endowed wif qwawities as de creator of de universe.
- Parā or Higher Brahman: de undifferentiated, absowute, infinite, transcendentaw, supra-rewationaw Brahman beyond aww dought and speech is defined as parā Brahman, nirviśeṣa Brahman or nirguṇa Brahman and is de Absowute of metaphysics.
- Aparā or Lower Brahman: de Brahman wif qwawities defined as aparā Brahman or saguṇa Brahman. The saguṇa Brahman is endowed wif attributes and represents de personaw God of rewigion, uh-hah-hah-hah.
Ramanuja, in formuwating Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, rejects nirguṇa—dat de undifferentiated Absowute is inconceivabwe—and adopts a deistic interpretation of de Upanishads, accepts Brahman as Ishvara, de personaw God who is de seat of aww auspicious attributes, as de One reawity. The God of Vishishtadvaita is accessibwe to de devotee, yet remains de Absowute, wif differentiated attributes.
Madhva, in expounding Dvaita phiwosophy, maintains dat Vishnu is de supreme God, dus identifying de Brahman, or absowute reawity, of de Upanishads wif a personaw god, as Ramanuja had done before him. Nimbarka, in his dvaitadvata phiwosophy, accepted de Brahman bof as nirguṇa and as saguṇa. Vawwabha, in his shuddhadvaita phiwosophy, not onwy accepts de tripwe ontowogicaw essence of de Brahman, but awso His manifestation as personaw God (Ishvara), as matter and as individuaw souws.
Rewation between Brahman and Jiva / Atman
The schoows of Vedanta differ in deir conception of de rewation dey see between Ātman / Jivātman and Brahman / Ishvara:
- According to Advaita Vedanta, Ātman is identicaw wif Brahman and dere is no difference.
- According to Vishishtadvaita, Jīvātman is different from Ishvara, dough eternawwy connected wif Him as His mode. The oneness of de Supreme Reawity is understood in de sense of an organic unity (vishistaikya). Brahman / Ishvara awone, as organicawwy rewated to aww Jīvātman and de materiaw universe is de one Uwtimate Reawity.
- According to Dvaita, de Jīvātman is totawwy and awways different from Brahman / Ishvara.
- According to Shuddhadvaita (pure monism), de Jīvātman and Brahman are identicaw; bof, awong wif de changing empiricawwy-observed universe being Krishna.
Pramāṇa (Sanskrit: प्रमाण) witerawwy means "proof", "dat which is de means of vawid knowwedge". It refers to epistemowogy in Indian phiwosophies, and encompasses de study of rewiabwe and vawid means by which human beings gain accurate, true knowwedge. The focus of Pramana is de manner in which correct knowwedge can be acqwired, how one knows or does not know, and to what extent knowwedge pertinent about someone or someding can be acqwired. Ancient and medievaw Indian texts identify six[note 18] pramanas as correct means of accurate knowwedge and truds:
- Pratyakṣa (perception)
- Anumāṇa (inference)
- Upamāṇa (comparison and anawogy)
- Arfāpatti (postuwation, derivation from circumstances)
- Anupawabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof)
- Śabda (scripturaw testimony/ verbaw testimony of past or present rewiabwe experts).
The different schoows of Vedanta have historicawwy disagreed as to which of de six are epistemowogicawwy vawid. For exampwe, whiwe Advaita Vedanta accepts aww six pramanas, Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita accept onwy dree pramanas (perception, inference and testimony).
Advaita considers Pratyakṣa (perception) as de most rewiabwe source of knowwedge, and Śabda, de scripturaw evidence, is considered secondary except for matters rewated to Brahman, where it is de onwy evidence.[note 19] In Vishistadvaita and Dvaita, Śabda, de scripturaw testimony, is considered de most audentic means of knowwedge instead.
Theories of cause and effect
Aww schoows of Vedanta subscribe to de deory of Satkāryavāda, which means dat de effect is pre-existent in de cause. But dere are two different views on de status of de "effect", dat is, de worwd. Most schoows of Vedanta, as weww as Samkhya, support Parinamavada, de idea dat de worwd is a reaw transformation (parinama) of Brahman, uh-hah-hah-hah. According to Nichowson (2010, p. 27), "de Brahma Sutras espouse de reawist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been de view most common among earwy Vedantins". In contrast to Badarayana, Adi Shankara and Advaita Vedantists howd a different view, Vivartavada, which says dat de effect, de worwd, is merewy an unreaw (vivarta) transformation of its cause, Brahman, uh-hah-hah-hah.[note 20]
Vedanta, adopting ideas from oder ordodox (āstika) schoows, became de most prominent schoow of Hinduism. Vedanta traditions wed to de devewopment of many traditions in Hinduism. Sri Vaishnavism of souf and soudeastern India is based on Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita Vedanta. Ramananda wed to de Vaishnav Bhakti Movement in norf, east, centraw and west India. This movement draws its phiwosophicaw and deistic basis from Vishishtadvaita. A warge number of devotionaw Vaishnavism traditions of east India, norf India (particuwarwy de Braj region), west and centraw India are based on various sub-schoows of Bhedabheda Vedanta. Advaita Vedanta infwuenced Krishna Vaishnavism in de nordeastern state of Assam. The Madhva schoow of Vaishnavism found in coastaw Karnataka is based on Dvaita Vedanta.
Āgamas, de cwassicaw witerature of Shaivism, dough independent in origin, show Vedanta association and premises. Of de 92 Āgamas, ten are (dvaita) texts, eighteen (bhedabheda), and sixty-four (advaita) texts. Whiwe de Bhairava Shastras are monistic, Shiva Shastras are duawistic. Isaeva (1995, pp. 134–135) finds de wink between Gaudapada's Advaita Vedanta and Kashmir Shaivism evident and naturaw. Tirumuwar, de Tamiw Shaiva Siddhanta schowar, credited wif creating "Vedanta–Siddhanta" (Advaita Vedanta and Shaiva Siddhanta syndesis), stated, "becoming Shiva is de goaw of Vedanta and Siddhanta; aww oder goaws are secondary to it and are vain, uh-hah-hah-hah."
Shaktism, or traditions where a goddess is considered identicaw to Brahman, has simiwarwy fwowered from a syncretism of de monist premises of Advaita Vedanta and duawism premises of Samkhya–Yoga schoow of Hindu phiwosophy, sometimes referred to as Shaktadavaitavada (witerawwy, de paf of nonduawistic Shakti).
Neo-Vedanta, variouswy cawwed as "Hindu modernism", "neo-Hinduism", and "neo-Advaita", is a term dat denotes some novew interpretations of Hinduism dat devewoped in de 19f century, presumabwy as a reaction to de cowoniaw British ruwe. King (2002, pp. 129–135) writes dat dese notions accorded de Hindu nationawists an opportunity to attempt de construction of a nationawist ideowogy to hewp unite de Hindus to fight cowoniaw oppression, uh-hah-hah-hah. Western orientawists, in deir search for its "essence", attempted to formuwate a notion of "Hinduism" based on a singwe interpretation of Vedanta as a unified body of rewigious praxis. This was contra-factuaw as, historicawwy, Hinduism and Vedanta had awways accepted a diversity of traditions. King (1999, pp. 133–136) asserts dat de neo-Vedantic deory of "overarching towerance and acceptance" was used by de Hindu reformers, togeder wif de ideas of Universawism and Perenniawism, to chawwenge de powemic dogmatism of Judaeo-Christian-Iswamic missionaries against de Hindus.
The neo-Vedantins argued dat de six ordodox schoows of Hindu phiwosophy were perspectives on a singwe truf, aww vawid and compwementary to each oder. Hawbfass (2007, p. 307) sees dese interpretations as incorporating western ideas into traditionaw systems, especiawwy Advaita Vedanta. It is de modern form of Advaita Vedanta, states King (1999, p. 135), de neo-Vedantists subsumed de Buddhist phiwosophies as part of de Vedanta tradition[note 21] and den argued dat aww de worwd rewigions are same "non-duawistic position as de phiwosophia perennis", ignoring de differences widin and outside of Hinduism. According to Gier (2000, p. 140), neo-Vedanta is Advaita Vedanta which accepts universaw reawism:
Ramakrishna, Vivekananda and Aurobindo have been wabewed neo-Vedantists (de watter cawwed it reawistic Advaita), a view of Vedanta dat rejects de Advaitins' idea dat de worwd is iwwusory. As Aurobindo phrased it, phiwosophers need to move from 'universaw iwwusionism' to 'universaw reawism', in de strict phiwosophicaw sense of assuming de worwd to be fuwwy reaw.
A major proponent in de popuwarization of dis Universawist and Perenniawist interpretation of Advaita Vedanta was Vivekananda, who pwayed a major rowe in de revivaw of Hinduism. He was awso instrumentaw in de spread of Advaita Vedanta to de West via de Vedanta Society, de internationaw arm of de Ramakrishna Order.[page needed]
Criticism of Neo-Vedanta wabew
Nichowson (2010, p. 2) writes dat de attempts at integration which came to be known as neo-Vedanta were evident as earwy as between de 12f and de 16f century−
... certain dinkers began to treat as a singwe whowe de diverse phiwosophicaw teachings of de Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and de schoows known retrospectivewy as de "six systems" (saddarsana) of mainstream Hindu phiwosophy.[note 22]
Matiwaw criticizes Neo-Hinduism as an oddity devewoped by West-inspired Western Indowogists and attributes it to de fwawed Western perception of Hinduism in modern India. In his scading criticism of dis schoow of reasoning, Matiwaw (2002, pp. 403–404) says:
The so-cawwed 'traditionaw' outwook is in fact a construction, uh-hah-hah-hah. Indian history shows dat de tradition itsewf was sewf-conscious and criticaw of itsewf, sometimes overtwy and sometimes covertwy. It was never free from internaw tensions due to de ineqwawities dat persisted in a hierarchicaw society, nor was it widout confrontation and chawwenge droughout its history. Hence Gandhi, Vivekananda and Tagore were not simpwy 'transpwants from Western cuwture, products arising sowewy from confrontation wif de west.
...It is rader odd dat, awdough de earwy Indowogists' romantic dream of discovering a pure (and probabwy primitive, according to some) form of Hinduism (or Buddhism as de case may be) now stands discredited in many qwarters; concepts wike neo-Hinduism are stiww bandied about as substantiaw ideas or fauwtwess expwanation toows by de Western 'anawytic' historians as weww as de West-inspired historians of India.
Infwuence on Western dinkers
An exchange of ideas has been taking pwace between de western worwd and Asia since de wate 18f century as a resuwt of cowonization of parts of Asia by Western powers. This awso infwuenced western rewigiosity. The first transwation of Upanishads, pubwished in two parts in 1801 and 1802, significantwy infwuenced Ardur Schopenhauer, who cawwed dem de consowation of his wife. He drew expwicit parawwews between his phiwosophy, as set out in The Worwd as Wiww and Representation, and dat of de Vedanta phiwosophy as described in de work of Sir Wiwwiam Jones. Earwy transwations awso appeared in oder European wanguages. Infwuenced by Śaṅkara's concepts of Brahman (God) and māyā (iwwusion), Lucian Bwaga often used de concepts marewe anonim (de Great Anonymous) and cenzura transcendentă (de transcendentaw censorship) in his phiwosophy.
According to Nakamura (1950, p. 3), de Vedanta schoow has had a historic and centraw infwuence on Hinduism:
The prevawence of Vedanta dought is found not onwy in phiwosophicaw writings but awso in various forms of (Hindu) witerature, such as de epics, wyric poetry, drama and so forf. ...de Hindu rewigious sects, de common faif of de Indian popuwace, wooked to Vedanta phiwosophy for de deoreticaw foundations for deir deowogy. The infwuence of Vedanta is prominent in de sacred witeratures of Hinduism, such as de various Puranas, Samhitas, Agamas and Tantras...
Fridjof Schuon summarizes de infwuence of Vedanta on Hinduism as fowwows:
The Vedanta contained in de Upanishads, den formuwated in de Brahma Sutra, and finawwy commented and expwained by Shankara, is an invawuabwe key for discovering de deepest meaning of aww de rewigious doctrines and for reawizing dat de Sanatana Dharma secretwy penetrates aww de forms of traditionaw spirituawity.
Fwood (1996, pp. 231–232, 238) states,
..de most infwuentiaw schoow of deowogy in India has been Vedanta, exerting enormous infwuence on aww rewigious traditions and becoming de centraw ideowogy of de Hindu renaissance in de nineteenf century. It has become de phiwosophicaw paradigm of Hinduism "par excewwence".
Simiwarities wif Spinoza's phiwosophy
German Sanskritist Theodore Gowdstücker was among de earwy schowars to notice simiwarities between de rewigious conceptions of de Vedanta and dose of de Dutch Jewish phiwosopher Baruch Spinoza, writing dat Spinoza's dought was
... so exact a representation of de ideas of de Vedanta, dat we might have suspected its founder to have borrowed de fundamentaw principwes of his system from de Hindus, did his biography not satisfy us dat he was whowwy unacqwainted wif deir doctrines [...] comparing de fundamentaw ideas of bof we shouwd have no difficuwty in proving dat, had Spinoza been a Hindu, his system wouwd in aww probabiwity mark a wast phase of de Vedanta phiwosophy.
Max Müwwer noted de striking simiwarities between Vedanta and de system of Spinoza, saying,
The Brahman, as conceived in de Upanishads and defined by Sankara, is cwearwy de same as Spinoza's 'Substantia'."
As to Spinoza's Deity—natura naturans—conceived in his attributes simpwy and awone; and de same Deity—as natura naturata or as conceived in de endwess series of modifications or correwations, de direct outfwowing resuwts from de properties of dese attributes, it is de Vedantic Deity pure and simpwe.
- Historicawwy, Vedanta has been cawwed by various names. The earwy names were de Upanishadic ones (Aupanisada), de doctrine of de end of de Vedas (Vedanta-vada), de doctrine of Brahman (Brahma-vada), and de doctrine dat Brahman is de cause (Brahma-karana-vada).
- The Upanishads were many in number and devewoped in de different schoows at different times and pwaces, some in de Vedic period and oders in de medievaw or modern era (de names of up to 112 Upanishads have been recorded). Aww major commentators have considered twewve to dirteen owdest of dese texts as de Principaw Upanishads and as de foundation of Vedanta.
- Sivananda awso mentions Meykandar and de Shaiva Siddhanta phiwosophy.
- Proponents of oder Vedantic schoows continue to write and devewop deir ideas as weww, awdough deir works are not widewy known outside of smawwer circwes of fowwowers in India.
- Nichowson (2010, p. 26) considers de Brahma Sutras as a group of sutras composed by muwtipwe audors over de course of hundreds of years. The precise date is disputed. Nichowson (2010, p. 26) estimates dat de book was composed in its current form between 400 and 450 BCE.
- The Vedanta–sūtra are known by a variety of names, incwuding (1) Brahma–sūtra, (2) Śārīraka–sutra, (3) Bādarāyaṇa–sūtra and (4) Uttara–mīmāṁsā.
- Estimates of de date of Bādarāyana's wifetime differ. 
- Bhartŗhari (c. 450–500), Upavarsa (c. 450–500), Bodhāyana (c. 500), Tanka (Brahmānandin) (c. 500–550), Dravida (c. 550), Bhartŗprapañca (c. 550), Śabarasvāmin (c. 550), Bhartŗmitra (c. 550–600), Śrivatsānka (c. 600), Sundarapāndya (c. 600), Brahmadatta (c. 600–700), Gaudapada (c. 640–690), Govinda (c. 670–720), Mandanamiśra (c. 670–750).
- There is ampwe evidence, however, to suggest dat Advaita was a driving tradition by de start of de common era or even before dat. Shankara mentions 99 different predecessors of his Sampradaya. Schowarship since 1950 suggests dat awmost aww Sannyasa Upanishads have a strong Advaita Vedanta outwook. Six Sannyasa Upanishads – Aruni, Kundika, Kadashruti, Paramahamsa, Jabawa and Brahma – were composed before de 3rd Century CE, wikewy in de centuries before or after de start of de common era; de Asrama Upanishad is dated to de 3rd Century. The strong Advaita Vedanta views in dese ancient Sannyasa Upanishads may be, states Patrick Owivewwe, because major Hindu monasteries of dis period bewonged to de Advaita Vedanta tradition, uh-hah-hah-hah.
- Schowars wike Raju (1972, p. 177), fowwowing de wead of earwier schowars wike Sengupta, bewieve dat Gaudapada co-opted de Buddhist doctrine dat uwtimate reawity is pure consciousness (vijñapti-mātra). Raju (1972, pp. 177–178) states, "Gaudapada wove [bof doctrines] into a phiwosophy of de Mandukaya Upanisad, which was furder devewoped by Shankara." Nikhiwananda (2008, pp. 203–206) states dat de whowe purpose of Gaudapada was to present and demonstrate de uwtimate reawity of Atman, an idea denied by Buddhism. According to Murti (1955, pp. 114–115), Gaudapada's doctrines are unwike Buddhism. Gaudapada's infwuentiaw text consists of four chapters; Chapter One, Two and Three of which are entirewy Vedantin and founded on de Upanishads, wif wittwe Buddhist fwavor. Chapter Four uses Buddhist terminowogy and incorporates Buddhist doctrines but Vedanta schowars who fowwowed Gaudapada drough de 17f century, state bof Murti and Richard King, never referenced nor used Chapter Four, dey onwy qwote from de first dree. Whiwe dere is shared terminowogy, de doctrines of Gaudapada and Buddhism are fundamentawwy different, states Murti (1955, pp. 114–115)
- Nichowson (2010, p. 27) writes: "The Brahmasutras demsewves espouse de reawist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been de view most common among earwy Vedantins."
- Shankara syndesized de Advaita–vāda which had previouswy existed before him, and, in dis syndesis, became de restorer & defender of an ancient wearning. He was an uneqwawed commentator, due to whose efforts and contributions, Advaita Vedanta assumed a dominant position widin Indian phiwosophy.
- According to Mishra, de sutras, beginning wif de first sutra of Jaimini and ending wif de wast sutra of Badarayana, form one compact shastra.
- Many sources date him to 1238–1317 period, but some pwace him over 1199–1278 CE.
- Doniger (1986, p. 119) says "dat to say dat de universe is an iwwusion (māyā) is not to say dat it is unreaw; it is to say, instead, dat it is not what it seems to be, dat it is someding constantwy being made. Maya not onwy deceives peopwe about de dings dey dink dey know; more basicawwy, it wimits deir knowwedge."
- The concept of Brahman in Dvaita Vedanta is so simiwar to de monodeistic eternaw God, dat some earwy cowoniaw–era Indowogists such as George Abraham Grierson suggested Madhva was infwuenced by earwy Christians who migrated to India,  but water schowarship has rejected dis deory.
- According to Nakamura and Dasgupta, de Brahmasutras refwect a Bhedabheda point of view, de most infwuentiaw tradition of Vedanta before Shankara. Numerous Indowogists, incwuding Surendranaf Dasgupta, Pauw hacker, Hajime Nakamura, and Mysore Hiriyanna, have described Bhedabheda as de most infwuentiaw schoow of Vedanta before Shankara.
- A few Indian schowars such as Vedvyasa discuss ten, Krtakoti discusses eight, but six is most widewy accepted; see Nichowson (2010, pp. 149–150)
- Anantanand Rambachan (1991, pp. xii–xiii) states, "According to dese [widewy represented contemporary] studies, Shankara onwy accorded a provisionaw vawidity to de knowwedge gained by inqwiry into de words of de Śruti (Vedas) and did not see de watter as de uniqwe source (pramana) of Brahmajnana. The affirmations of de Śruti, it is argued, need to be verified and confirmed by de knowwedge gained drough direct experience (anubhava) and de audority of de Śruti, derefore, is onwy secondary." Sengaku Mayeda (2006, pp. 46–47) concurs, adding Shankara maintained de need for objectivity in de process of gaining knowwedge (vastutantra), and considered subjective opinions (purushatantra) and injunctions in Śruti (codanatantra) as secondary. Mayeda cites Shankara's expwicit statements emphasizing epistemowogy (pramana–janya) in section 1.18.133 of Upadesasahasri and section 1.1.4 of Brahmasutra–bhasya.
- Nichowson (2010, p. 27) writes of Advaita Vedantin position of cause and effect - Awdough Brahman seems to undergo a transformation, in fact no reaw change takes pwace. The myriad of beings are essentiawwy unreaw, as de onwy reaw being is Brahman, dat uwtimate reawity which is unborn, unchanging, and entirewy widout parts.
- Vivekananda, cwarifies Richard King, stated, "I am not a Buddhist, as you have heard, and yet I am"; but dereafter Vivekananda expwained dat "he cannot accept de Buddhist rejection of a sewf, but neverdewess honors de Buddha's compassion and attitude towards oders".
- The tendency of "a bwurring of phiwosophicaw distinctions" has awso been noted by Burwey. Lorenzen wocates de origins of a distinct Hindu identity in de interaction between Muswims and Hindus, and a process of "mutuaw sewf-definition wif a contrasting Muswim oder", which started weww before 1800.
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- Sharma 1962, pp. 368–374.
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- Vedanta Treatise: The Eternities by Swami Pardasarady
- The System of Vedanta by Pauw Deussen. 1912. Reprint 2007.
- Forgotten Truf: The Primordiaw Tradition by Huston Smif
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- Choice Upanishads by Swami Pardasarady
- Vedanta: A Simpwe Introduction by Pravrajika Vrajaprana
- Vedanta Hub - Resources to hewp wif de Study and Practice of Vedanta