The bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus), also known as the
lammergeier[a] or ossifrage, is a bird of prey and the only member of
the genus Gypaetus. Traditionally considered an Old World vulture, it
actually forms a minor lineage of
Accipitridae together with the
Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus), its closest living relative.
It is not much more closely related to the Old World vultures proper
than to, for example, hawks, and differs from the former by its
feathered neck. Although dissimilar, the Egyptian and bearded vulture
each have a lozenge-shaped tail — unusual among birds of prey. In
July 2014, the
IUCN Red List
IUCN Red List has reassessed this species to be near
threatened. Before July 2014, it was actually classed as Least
Concern. Their population trend is decreasing.
The bearded vulture is the only known animal whose diet is almost
exclusively bone (70-90%). It lives and breeds on crags in high
mountains in southern Europe, the Caucasus, Africa, the
Indian subcontinent, and Tibet, laying one or two eggs in mid-winter
that hatch at the beginning of spring. Populations are resident.
1 Distribution and habitat
3.1 Diet and feeding
4 Conservation status
6 In culture
7 In cryptography
10 External links
Distribution and habitat
The bearded vulture is sparsely distributed across a considerable
range. It may be found in mountainous regions from
Europe through much
Asia and Africa. In Eurasia, it is found in the Pyrenees, the Alps,
Caucasus region, the Zagros Mountains, the Alborzs, the Koh-i-Baba
in Bamyan, Afghanistan, the Altai Mountains, the Himalayas, Ladakh in
north India, western and central China,
Israel (Where although extinct
as a breeder since 1981, single young birds have been reported in
2000, 2004 and 2016 ), and the Arabian Peninsula. In Africa, it is
found in the Atlas Mountains, the
Ethiopian Highlands and down from
Sudan to northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, central Kenya
and northern Tanzania. An isolated population inhabits the Drakensberg
of South Africa.
This species is almost entirely associated with mountains and
inselbergs with plentiful cliffs, crags, precipices, canyons and
gorges. They are often found near alpine pastures and meadows, montane
grassland and heath, steep-sided, rocky wadis, high steppe and are
occasional around forests. They seem to prefer desolate,
lightly-populated areas where predators who provide many bones, such
as wolves and golden eagles, have healthy populations. In Ethiopia,
they are now common at refuse tips on the outskirts of small villages
and towns. Although they occasionally descend to 300–600 m
(980–1,970 ft), bearded vultures are rare below an elevation of
1,000 m (3,300 ft) and normally reside above 2,000 m
(6,600 ft) in some parts of their range. They are typically found
around or above the tree line which are often near the tops of the
mountains, at up to 2,000 m (6,600 ft) in Europe,
4,500 m (14,800 ft) in
Africa and 5,000 m
(16,000 ft) in central Asia. In southern Armenia they have been
found to breed below 1,000 m (3,300 ft) if cliff
availability permits. They even have been observed living at
altitudes of 7,500 m (24,600 ft) on
Mount Everest and been
observed flying at a height of 24,000 ft
A Lammergeier in Puga valley in east of Ladakh.
This bird is 94–125 cm (37–49 in) long with a wingspan
of 2.31–2.83 m (7.6–9.3 ft). It weighs
4.5–7.8 kg (9.9–17.2 lb), with the nominate race
averaging 6.21 kg (13.7 lb) and G. b. meridionalis of Africa
averaging 5.7 kg (13 lb). In Eurasia, vultures found
Himalayas tend to be slightly larger than those from other
mountain ranges. Females are slightly larger than males. It
is essentially unmistakable with other vultures or indeed other birds
in flight due to its long, narrow wings, with the wing chord measuring
71.5–91 cm (28.1–35.8 in), and long, wedge-shaped tail,
which measures 42.7–52 cm (16.8–20.5 in) in length. The
tarsus is relatively small for the bird's size, at 8.8–10 cm
(3.5–3.9 in). The proportions of the species have been compared
to a falcon, scaled to an enormous size.
Unlike most vultures, the bearded vulture does not have a bald head.
This species is relatively small headed, although its neck is powerful
and thick. It has a generally elongated, slender shape, sometimes
appearing bulkier due to the often hunched back of these birds. The
gait on the ground is waddling and the feet are large and powerful.
The adult is mostly dark gray, rusty and whitish in color. It is
grey-blue to grey-black above. The creamy-coloured forehead contrasts
against a black band across the eyes and lores and bristles under the
chin, which form a black beard that give the species its English name.
Bearded vultures are variably orange or rust of plumage on their head,
breast and leg feathers but this is actually cosmetic. This
colouration may come from dust-bathing, rubbing mud on its body or
from drinking in mineral-rich waters. The tail feathers and wings are
gray. The juvenile bird is dark black-brown over most of the body,
with a buff-brown breast and takes five years to reach full maturity.
The bearded vulture is silent, apart from shrill whistles in their
breeding displays and a falcon-like cheek-acheek call made around the
Nestlings are covered in dark down feathers
The juvenile bird is mostly dark
The adult has a buff-yellow body and head
Adult in flight from below (note the tail shape)
Adult spreading wings
The acid concentration of the bearded vulture stomach has been
estimated to be of pH about 1 and large bones will be digested in
about 24 hours, aided by slow mixing/churning of the stomach content.
The high fat content of bone marrow makes the net energy value of bone
almost as good as that of muscle, even if bone is less completely
digested. A skeleton left on a mountain will dehydrate and become
protected from bacterial degradation and the bearded vulture can
return to consume the remainder of a carcass even months after the
soft parts have been consumed by other animals, larvae and
Diet and feeding
Bearded vulture on the rocks in Gran Paradiso National Park.
Like other vultures it is a scavenger, feeding mostly on the remains
of dead animals. It usually disdains the actual meat, however, and
lives on a diet that is typically 85–90% bone marrow. This is the
only living bird species that specializes in feeding on marrow. The
bearded vulture can swallow whole or bite through brittle bones up to
the size of a lamb's femur and its powerful digestive system
quickly dissolves even large pieces. The bearded vulture has learned
to crack bones too large to be swallowed by carrying them in flight to
a height of 50–150 m (160–490 ft) above the ground and
then dropping them onto rocks below, which smashes them into smaller
pieces and exposes the nutritious marrow. They can fly with bones
up to 10 cm (3.9 in) in diameter and weighing over 4 kg
(8.8 lb), or nearly equal to their own weight. After dropping
the large bones, the bearded vulture spirals or glides down to inspect
them and may repeat the act if the bone is not sufficiently
cracked. This learned skill requires extensive practice by immature
birds and takes up to seven years to master. Its old name of
ossifrage ("bone breaker") relates to this habit. More seldom, these
birds have been observed to try to break bones (usually of a medium
size) by hammering them with their bill directly into rocks while
perched. During the breeding season they feed mainly on carrion.
They prefer limbs of sheep and other small mammals and they carry the
food to the nest unlike other vultures which feed their young by
Live prey is sometimes attacked by the bearded vulture, with perhaps
greater regularity than any other vulture. Among these, tortoises
seem to be especially favored depending on their local abundance.
Tortoises preyed on may be nearly as heavy as the preying vulture.
When killing tortoise, bearded vultures also fly to some height and
drop them to crack open the bulky reptiles' hard shells. Golden eagles
have been observed to kill tortoises in the same way. Other live
animals, up to nearly their own size, have been observed to be
predaciously seized and dropped in flight. Among these are rock
hyraxes, hares, marmots and, in one case, a 62 cm (24 in)
long monitor lizard. Larger animals have been known to be
attacked by bearded vultures, including ibex, Capra goats,
Steenbok. These animals have been killed by being surprised by the
large birds and battered with wings until they fall off precipitous
rocky edges to their deaths; although in some cases these may be
accidental killings when both the vulture and the mammal surprise each
other. Many large animals killed by bearded vultures are unsteady
young, or have appeared sickly or obviously injured. Humans have
been anecdotally reported to have been killed in the same way.
However, this is unconfirmed and, if it does happen, most biologists
who have studied the birds generally agreed it would be accidental on
the part of the vulture. Occasionally smaller ground-dwelling
birds, such as partridges and pigeons, have been reported eaten,
possibly either as fresh carrion (which is usually ignored by these
birds) or killed with beating wings by the vulture. While foraging
for bones or live prey while in flight, bearded vultures fly fairly
low over the rocky ground, staying around 2 to 4 m (6.6 to
13.1 ft) high. Occasionally, breeding pairs may forage and
hunt together. In the Ethiopian Highlands, bearded vultures have
adapted to living largely off human refuse.
The bearded vulture occupies an enormous territory year-round. It may
forage over two square kilometers each day. The breeding period is
variable, being December through September in Eurasia, November to
June in the Indian subcontinent, October to May in Ethiopia,
throughout the year in eastern
Africa and May to January in southern
Africa. Although generally solitary, the bond between a breeding
pair is often considerably close. In a few cases, polyandry has been
recorded in the species. The territorial and breeding display
between bearded vultures is often spectacular, involving the showing
of talons, tumbling and spiralling while in solo flight. The large
birds also regularly lock feet with each other and fall some distance
through the sky with each other. The nest is a massive pile of
sticks, that goes from around 1 m (3.3 ft) across and
69 cm (27 in) deep when first constructed up to 2.5 m
(8.2 ft) across and 1 m (3.3 ft) deep, with a covering
of various animal matter from food, after repeated uses. The female
usually lays a clutch of 1 to 2 eggs, though 3 have been recorded on
rare occasions. which are incubated for 53 to 60 days. After
hatching the young spend 100 to 130 days in the nest before fledging.
The young may be dependent on the parents for up to 2 years, forcing
the parents to nest in alternate years on a regular basis.
Typically, the bearded vulture nests in caves and on ledges and rock
outcrops or caves on steep rock walls, so are very difficult for
nest-predating mammals to access. Wild bearded vultures have a
mean lifespan of 21.4 years, but have been observed to live for up
to at least 45 years in captivity.
Gypaetus barbatus aureus egg – MHNT
Gypaetus barbatus hemachalanus egg – MHNT
Boy with live bearded vulture, Kabul
The bearded vulture is locally threatened. It naturally occurs at low
densities, with anywhere from a dozen to 500 pairs now being found in
each mountain range in
Eurasia where the species breeds. The species
is most common in Ethiopia, where an estimated 1,400 to 2,200 are
believed to breed. Relatively large, healthy numbers seem to occur
in some parts of the
Himalayas as well. It was largely wiped out in
Europe by the beginning of the 20th century, but has been locally
reintroduced and is beginning to re-establish itself in protected
areas. The bearded vulture has been successfully reintroduced to the
Spain (spreading into Portugal), and the Swiss and Italian
Alps (with both populations spreading into France). They have also
declined somewhat in parts of
Asia and Africa, though less severely
than in Europe. Declines today are usually due to poisons left out
for carnivores, habitat degradation, the disturbances of nests,
reduced food supplies and collisions with power lines. It was
formerly persecuted in significant numbers because people feared
(without justification) that it regularly carried off children and
domestic animals; the bird was also hunted as a trophy. Despite
the declines, the species clearly occupies a large range and, as such,
it is listed as
Near threatened on the
IUCN Red List
IUCN Red List since the 24th of
July 2014 . Probably fewer than 10,000 pairs exist in the wild
This species was first described by Linnaeus in his
Systema naturae in
1758 as Vultur barbatus. The present scientific name means
The name lammergeyer originates from German Lämmergeier, which means
"lamb-vulture". The name stems from the belief that it attacked
Bearded vulture is considered a threatened species in Iran. Iranian
mythology considers the rare bearded vulture (Persian: هما, 'Homa')
the symbol of luck and happiness. It was believed that if the shadow
of a Homa fell on one, he would rise to sovereignty and anyone
shooting the bird would die in forty days. The habit of eating bones
and apparently not killing living animals was noted by Sa'di in
Gulistan published in 1258 and Emperor Jahangir had the crop examined
in 1625 to find that it was filled with bones.
Greeks used ornithomancers to guide their political
decisions: bearded vultures, or ossifragae were one of the few species
of birds that could yield valid signs to these soothsayers.
The Greek playwright
Aeschylus was said to have been killed in 456 or
455 BC by a tortoise dropped by an eagle who mistook his bald head for
a stone – if this incident did occur, the bearded vulture is a
likely candidate for the "eagle".
In the Bible/Torah, the bearded vulture, as the ossifrage, is among
the birds forbidden to be eaten (
More recently, in 1945, it is said that
Shimon Peres (called Shimon
Persky at the time) and
David Ben-Gurion found a nest of bearded
vultures in the
Negev desert. The bird is called peres in Hebrew, and
Shimon Persky liked it so much he adopted it as his surname.
"The Magic Words are Squeamish Ossifrage" was the plaintext solution
to the RSA-129 cipher challenge, which first appeared in Martin
Gardner's Mathematical Games August 1977 column in Scientific
American. It was solved in 1994 in one of the first large-scale joint
distributed computing projects organized over the internet, using 600
volunteers spread across 1600 machines and six months. It began the
tradition of using the words "squeamish ossifrage" in cryptanalytic
^ Alternative spelling: lammergeyer.
^ a b
BirdLife International (2013). "Gypaetus barbatus". IUCN Red
List of Threatened Species. Version 2013.2. International Union for
Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 26 November 2013.
^ "Bearded vulture".
^ a b Gavashelishvili, A.; McGrady, M. J. (2006). "Breeding site
selection by bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) and Eurasian griffon
Gyps fulvus) in the Caucasus".
Animal Conservation. 9 (2): 159–170.
^ a b Gavashelishvili, A.; McGrady, M. J. (2006). "Geographic
information system-based modelling of vulture response to carcass
appearance in the Caucasus". Journal of Zoology. 269 (3): 365–372.
^ a b Gavashelishvili, A.; McGrady, M. J. (2007). "Radio-satellite
telemetry of a territorial Bearded
Vulture Gypaetus barbatus in the
Vulture News. 56: 4–13.
^ Krüger, Sonja (2010-04-19). "Conservation of the Bearded Vulture
Gypaetus barbatus meridionalis". Africanraptors.org. Retrieved
^ "News from the field - Daily Updates". פורטל צפרות.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae
af ag ah Ferguson-Lees, James; Christie, David A. (2001). Raptors of
the World. Illustrated by Kim Franklin, David Mead, and Philip Burton.
Houghton Mifflin. p. 417. ISBN 978-0-618-12762-7. Retrieved
^ "Bearded Vulture". Armenian
Bird Census Council. 2017.
^ Bruce, Charles Granville (1923). The assault on
Mount Everest 1922.
London: Longmans, Green and Co.
^ Beaman, Mark; Madge, Steve (1999). The Handbook of Bird
Europe and the Western Palearctic. Princeton
University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-02726-5.
^ Houston, D.C.; Copsey, J.A. (1994). "Bone Digestion and Intestinal
Morphology of the Bearded Vulture" (PDF). J. Raptor Res. Raptor
Research Foundation. 28 (2): 73–78. Retrieved 2011-07-24.
^ a b c "Lammergeier Vulture". The Living Edens — Bhutan. PBS.
^ "Lammergeier (video, facts and news)". Wildlife Finder. BBC.
^ Margalida, Antoni; Bertra, Joan; Heredia, Rafael (2009). "Diet and
food preferences of the endangered Bearded
Vulture Gypaetus barbatus:
a basis for their conservation". Ibis. 151: 235–243.
^ Brown, C.J. (March 1997). "Population dynamics of the bearded
vulture Gypaetus barbatus in southern Africa". African Journal of
Ecology. 35 (1): 53–63.
^ Antor, R.J. (2007). "First breeding age in captive and wild Bearded
Vultures Gypaetus barbatus". Acta Ornithologica. 42 (1): 114–118.
^ "Lammergeier". howstuffworks.com. Discovery Communications.
2008-04-22. Archived from the original on 12 July 2011. Retrieved
^ Linnaeus, Carolus (1758).
Systema naturae per regna tria naturae,
secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus,
differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata (in
Latin). Holmiae. (Laurentii Salvii). p. 87. V. albidus, dorso
fusco, jugulo barbato, rostro incarnato, capite linea nigra
^ Everett, Mike (2008). "Lammergeiers and lambs". British Birds. 101
^ Pollard, J.R.T. (1947). "The Lammergeyer: Comparative Descriptions
in Aristotle and Pliny".
Greece & Rome. 16 (46): 23–28.
doi:10.1017/s0017383500009311. ISSN 1477-4550.
^ Phillott, D.C. (1906). "Note on the Huma or Lammergeyer". Journal of
the Asiatic Society of Bengal. 2 (10): 532–533.
^ Marche, Stephen (2008-06-13). "Flight of Fancy". The New Republic.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gypaetus barbatus.
Wikispecies has information related to Gypaetus barbatus
Video of lammergeier shattering bones into smaller pieces on which it
then feeds at ARKive
Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds
Facts and Characteristics: Bearded
The Lammergeier in Spain
Cine and photo work about the Bearded
Vulture in the Alps
Vulture in Armenia, Armenian
Bird Census Council. 2017.
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Fauna Europaea: 96696