B - Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is transmitted through parenteral and sexual exposure.
The mean incubation time is 90 days with a range of 30 to 180 days. Donor Blood is
routinely tested for HBsAg and HBcAb. There is no routine testing for
hepatitis A, because it is said to be rarely transmitted by Blood products in the United
States. Recipients of Blood products can also be infected with hepatitis delta, which is a
defective RNA virus that needs an HBV superinfection to replicate. Persons who have
received a hepatitis B vaccination (recommended for all health care workers with patient
contact) will have hepatitis B surface antibody present, but not HBsAg or HBcAb. Risk of
transmission in the Unites States is said to be 1 in 66,000.
B Foundation - Mutual support and information network for persons affected by
hepatitis B. Includes information on online support groups at their web site.
Genix Pharma - Offering pharmaceutical drugs and treatment of Chronic
Hepatitis B, AIDS-HIV therapeutic, bacterial infections, analgesics and neutraceuticals.
- The hepatitis C virus (HCV) currently affects over four million people in the United
States. This disease has reached epidemic proportions. It is the primary reason for liver
transplantation in the United States hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is still the most
common transfusion transmitted infection. Persons at highest risk for the virus are those
who received blood transfusions prior to 1991 or people with a history of IV drug abuse
using shared needles. One attribute of this disease that contributes to the high rate of
infection, is that the time from infection with the virus until manifestation of liver
disease can be decades. The hepatitis C virus subtype varies worldwide. In Europe, types
1, 2 and 3 are the predominant genotypes with types 1a and 3a in the north-western
countries and 1b in Hungary, Germany, Russia and Turkey. In North America, types 1a and 1b
have been found. In Japan and Taiwan, types 1b, 2a and 2b predominate; type 6a in Hong
Kong and Macau. Type 4 is found in Zaire, Central and North Africa; 5a in South Africa.
The hepatitis C virus is taken into the body other than through the digestive tract. It
must be inherited, transfused or injected in some manner. The sexual transmission rate is
lower than once thought. At present, only testing for hepatitis C
antibody is available. The antibody to the hepatitis C virus appears 54 to 192 days in a
person's Blood after infection. If an infected person donates Blood prior to the
appearance of this antibody the chance of that Blood being used in a transfusion is said
to be one out of 103,000 donations, There are an estimated 15-million Blood transfusions
each year. Risk of transmission in the Unites States is said to be 1 in 121,000.
C Page - A new combination therapy is proving effective for some of the four million
Americans infected with hepatitis C.
C Vets - Support site for veterans afflicted with the hepatitis C virus and their
Hepatitis C Primer - Information
about the Hepatitis C Virus.
Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) - In 1982 the first cases of AIDS transmitted from
Blood or Blood components were reported, but little of the infection was known at that
time, and even less was talked about publicly. By 1983 radical changes began to occur in
the donor criteria to exclude those at high risk for transmission of HIV. The testing of
Blood products for HIV started in 1985. It was a test to detect the presence of the
antibody directed against HIV, rather than a direct test for HIV. Testing for HIV p24
antigen was mandated in 1996. Risk of transmission in the Unites States is said to be 1 in
Mayo HIV Clinic - Providing comprehensive services to persons living
with Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection.
Guidelines - Guidelines for the Prevention of Opportunistic Infections in Persons
Infected with HIV.
Immunodeficiency Virus Infections in the Child Care Setting - From the "The ABC's
of Safe and Healthy Child Care" handbook produced by the National Center for
Infectious Diseases (NCID).
for Preventing HIV in Women - Full discussion of risk factors and prevention
strategies, and more.
T-lymphocytotrophic Virus (HTLV-1) - This is a retrovirus that is endemic in Japan
and the Caribbean. It is implicated as causing adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma and a
neurological disorder similar to multiple sclerosis. Blood is routinely screened for
antibodies to HTLV-1 utilizing this relatively inexpensive test. Risk of transmission in
the United States at this time is said to be 1 in 641,000.
Dr. Moen's Research
Group - Purification and Activation of Human T-Cell Leukemia Virus Type 1 Protease by
HTLV-1 - from
British Columbia Ministry of Health.
HGV - The Hepatitis
G Virus is an RNA virus of the Flaviviridae family. HGV infection was originally
associated with fulminant hepatitis, but recent studies have failed to prove a connection
between HGV and clinical illness. It is primarily Blood borne and accounts for 0.3% of
acute viral hepatitis estimated at 900 to 2000 infections per year in the United
States In many countries, 1% to 2% of Blood donors test positive for HGV RNA &
the prevalence of HGV infection is up to 10% to 15% in West African children. How this
high prevalence is maintained is unknown, but this does suggest that sub-clinical
infection is common. Therefore, HGV infection is probably much more frequent than studies
of the prevalence of HGV RNA suggest. The virus is transmitted by the same routes as HCV
and co-infection is common, however, this may represent a common source of infection
rather than any clinical similarity between the two viruses. The clinical significance of
HGV infection and HGV-HCV co-infection remains to be fully elucidated, but at present does
not seem to be a major disease-causing factor. The majority of patients infected with HGV
by Blood transfusion do not develop serious chronic hepatitis.
Hepatitis G - Comprehensive
information from Howard J. Worman, M. D.
Hepatitis G Virus - An article on the history of HGV by Dr. Mohammad Sultan Khuroo.
- Cryoglobulinemia is a term given to a disorder of the Blood and refers to the
presence of cryoglobulins in the blood. These are abnormal forms of protein molecules that
precipitate (clump together) at cold temperatures and re-dissolve at normal body
temperature. Therefore, when a person with cryoglobulinemia is exposed to cold, he or she
may experience decreased circulation in the smaller blood vessels. This may lead to color
changes in the skin, damage to the extremities, bleeding into the skin (purpura), hives
and other problems. The underlying cause of this condition may include diseases of the
immune system, such as Waldstrom's macroglobulinemia, or its malignant form, multiple
myeloma, and some infectious diseases, such as the hepatitis C virus. There are
treatments for Cryoglobulinemia, such as
cryofiltration, which has proven extremely effective in easing complications of this
disease such as organ damage and skin ulcers.
Cryoglobulinemia Home Page - This Web site
has been created as a central communication hub for people with cryoglobulinemia. It is
loaded with quality information and a great starting point.
Johns Hopkins Vasculitis Center - A
quality illustrated article on the subject from a leader in research and treatment of this
Cryoglobulinemia e-Group -
Yahoo e-Group on the topic to support those people and their friends, who are affected by
Transfusion Transmitted Virus is a relatively new virus becoming widely known in 1997 in
patients with fulminant hepatitis and chronic liver disease of unknown etiology. TTV is an
unenveloped, single stranded DNA virus. Two genetic groups have been identified, differing
by 30% in nucleotide sequences. TTV DNA was detected in 47% of patients with fulminant
non-A-G hepatitis and 46% of patients with chronic liver diseases of unknown etiology. The
result suggests that TTV may be the cause of some cryptogenic liver diseases. In testing,
the presence of TTV, was found in approximately 10% of U. S. volunteer Blood donors,
13% of commercial Blood donors, and 17% of intravenous drug abusers. The rate of TTV
infection among U. S. non-A, non-B, non-C, non-D, non-E hepatitis patients was only 2%.
Transfusion Transmitted Virus news Update site.
Exhaustive article from Taipei Medical College; Dr. Jau-Shin WU.
- The prevalence of the CMV antibody ranges from 50% to 80% of the population. Blood
contaminated with CMV can cause problems in neonates or immunocompromised patients.
Potential problems in selected patient populations can be prevented by transfusing CMV
negative Blood or frozen, deglycerolized RBC's. Donor Blood is not routinely tested for
CMV Research -
Department of Immunotechnology, Lund University.
Article from McMaster University.
Disease (CJD) - A degenerative and fatal nervous system disorder. Affected
individuals can remain asymptomatic for decades after infection and then progress rapidly
to dementia, severe loss of coordination and death. We are told by the Blood establishment
that the risk of CJD being transmitted through Blood products is 'theoretical.' The
infectious agent has (yes, has) been found in Blood products.
|Today CJD is, in our opinion,
under-researched, under-investigated and extremely under-reported. CJD cases around the
world by geographical area show that CJD is more common than generally thought. This
disease is feared and avoided by many medical professionals when diagnosed in its advanced
stages. It resembles in many ways the infamous Mad Cow Disease or
Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE). There is also concern about Chronic Wasting
Disease (New Mad Cow Disease). As in Mad Cow Disease, scientists believe abnormal brain
proteins that have undergone a peculiar shape change can cause other brain proteins to do
the same causing CJD. Variants are nCJD, vCJD and nvCJD.
Transmission of CJD has been
proven from human to human by the transplantation of dura mater, the injection of
pituitary-derived human growth hormone, and more rarely by the reuse of EEG electrodes and
corneal transplantation. Currently, there is no test for the disease, however, all Blood
banking organizations in Europe, and now in the United States, prohibit Blood donation by
individuals who have symptoms or a family history of symptoms. Blood donors are carefully
questioned about family history of CJD and surgeries that involved transplanted dura
mater. If they answer affirmatively to any of these
questions, they are permanently deferred as a donor. We see here again the potential
danger in the 'honor system' of Blood donation in the United States. There is no
possibility of contracting CJD by making a normal Blood donation.
1997 CDC CJD
HHV-8 - While there appears to be association between Kaposis sarcoma
(KS) and human herpes virus-8 (HHV-8) and), it is said to be unproven whether or not the
virus is transfusion transmitted. Also, if it is transfusion transmitted, is it associated
with development of KS. Again we see here at this time, in our opinion, another case of
under-researching, under-investigating and extremely under-reporting.
- Cases of transfusion-associated Leishmaniasis are growing each year world wide. This
increase is increasingly associated with patients who are positive for HIV.
Transfusion-associated Leishmaniasis requires that the parasites be present in the
peripheral Blood of the donor, survive processing and storage in the Blood bank, and
infect the recipient. In endemic areas where the population of potentially infected
individuals may be much higher and the screening process for donors less rigorous,
transfusion-associated Leishmaniasis is more common. Leishmaniasis is now found in over 90
countries. Again here we see the fact of world travel by a diverse population, and the
'honor system' Blood donor screening process, and too expensive testing, all contribute to
the increase of transfusion transmitted Leishmaniasis.
- Lyme disease is associated with the bite of the eastern deer tick, and can cause an
illness that affects many systems within the body. Donors with a history of Lyme disease
can not donate Blood unless they no longer have symptoms whatever, have undergone a full
course of antibiotic treatment, and are cleared by a physician. Public health and Blood
agencies are closely monitoring this disease.
- The popular statement, routinely given is that "malaria is rarely transmitted by
Blood products." The number of transfusion associated cases of malaria, however, is
at an all-time high. There are no practical laboratory tests available to test donor
Blood, so donors travelling to high risk malaria areas are often deferred from donating
Blood for six months. This policy, however, is not evenly applied in all areas and,
believe it or not, depends on the honor system to work.
Disease - Discovered a century ago by Brazilian doctor Carlos Chagas, this
disease, properly named Chagas' Disease, is caused by a parasite that infects an
estimated 18 million people worldwide,
causing death from heart and digestive problems. Up to 20% of infected people never
exhibit symptoms. Because of recent shifts in population, individuals from countries
where this disease is common (South and Central America) are migrating
in large numbers to the United States and other countries.
- An intraerythrocytic parasitic infection caused from the bite of the infected Ixodes
tick. The disease closely resembles in some ways Lyme Disease, and in other ways,
malaria. This significantly affects the hematological system, causing among other
things, hemolytic anemia, thrombocytopenia, and atypical lymphocyte formation. The
transmitted parasite only infects red Blood cells by altering the cell membranes that
causes decreased conformability and increased red cell adherence, which, in turn, can lead
to development of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) among those severely
affected. Babesia parasites invade and survive within erythrocytes. These Blood-borne
parasites remain viable under Blood bank conditions. In Europe, Babesiosis is a
life-threatening disease and is a significant public health problem in regions of the
northeastern United States. Of patients with Babesiosis, 84% are asplenic, and 53% become
comatose and die. Those individuals with a history of the disease are to be permanently
deferred from donating Blood, if they know and admit before Blood donation that they have
carried the malady.
- A systemic protozoan infection that causes symptoms similar to infectious mononucleosis.
In immunocompromised individuals this infection can have serious neurological symptoms and
can cause fetal death in pregnant women. Toxoplasmosis is also transmitted by common house
From AVMA - What You Should Know about
Contamination of Blood Products - This is another less often observed risk
disorder directly associated with Blood transfusion. It is increasingly rare but a very
serious complication of Blood transfusion. Most commonly associated with contamination
during Blood collection or during handling of Blood products, such as preparation of
platelet pools, and on occasion, associated with bacterial infection of the donor, it is
sometimes recognizable by obvious changes in the appearance of the Blood product. Studies
indicate that the rate of contamination of Blood products by bacterial pathogens may be
significant. Since Blood recipient death continues to occur, in 1997, the CDC entered into
an agreement with national Blood collection and distribution agencies to determine the
frequency of transfusion reactions associated with bacterial contamination of Blood
products. The new study will be a critical step in addressing this issue and will increase
clinicians' awareness of bacterial contamination as a cause of transfusion reactions.
Currently, the nation's Blood supply is not screened for bacterial contamination.
Amazingly, when this contamination issue is raised, Blood donor deferral is merely
recommended, and not mandatory
Extensive article from AABB and Puget Sound Blood Center.
View FDA Blood Transfusion Death Notification